Extinct and Endangered species

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, is a landmark international treaty that recognises biodiversity as a shared concern for all humanity. The Convention entered into force on 29 December 1993. Its core mission is to halt the alarming loss of species, ecosystems, and genetic diversity while promoting sustainable development. But the CBD being part of the United Nations Environment Programme is not just about conservation - it’s about redefining humanity’s relationship with nature, ensuring that economic progress does not come at the expense of the planet’s life support systems, the ecosystem services. Currently (2026) the list of Parties comprise 196 countries. The United States of America is the only UN member state that has not ratified the CBD, making it a non-party observer.

Biological Diversity
Biological diversity - or biodiversity - is the term given to the variety of life on Earth and the natural patterns it forms. The biodiversity we see today is the fruit of billions of years of evolution, shaped by natural processes and, increasingly, by the influence of humans. It forms the web of life of which we are an integral part and upon which we so fully depend.
This diversity is often understood in terms of the wide variety of plants, animals and microorganisms. So far, about 1.75 million species have been identified, mostly small creatures such as insects. Scientists reckon that there are actually about 13 million species, though estimates range from three to 100 million.
Biodiversity also includes genetic differences within each species - for example, between varieties of crops and breeds of livestock. Chromosomes, genes, and DNA-the building blocks of life-determine the uniqueness of each individual and each species.
Yet another aspect of biodiversity is the variety of ecosystems such as those that occur in deserts, forests, wetlands, mountains, lakes, rivers, and agricultural landscapes. In each ecosystem, living creatures, including humans, form a community, interacting with one another and with the air, water, and soil around them.
It is the combination of life forms and their interactions with each other and with the rest of the environment that has made Earth a uniquely habitable place for humans. Biodiversity provides a large number of goods and services that sustain our lives.

At its heart, the CBD operates on three interconnected pillars:

1. Conserving biodiversity - protecting ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
2. Promoting sustainable use - ensuring that natural resources are used in ways that do not deplete them for future generations.
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits - ensuring that the profits from genetic resources, such as medicines or crops, are distributed fairly, especially to the communities and countries that have preserved these resources for centuries.

From Global Commitment to Local Action

The CBD is a global agreement, but its success depends on action at the national level. Each country that ratifies the treaty commits to developing national biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAPs). These plans are not isolated documents - they are woven into broader national development strategies, whether in forestry, agriculture, fisheries, or urban planning. Governments are tasked with identifying the most critical components of biodiversity, setting measurable conservation targets, and integrating these goals into policies that affect land, water, and natural resources.

For example, countries are encouraged to establish protected areas to safeguard ecosystems, restore degraded lands, and regulate activities that threaten biodiversity. But the CBD goes further: it emphasises the importance of involving local communities, indigenous peoples, and stakeholders in decision-making. Traditional knowledge, long overlooked, is now recognised as a vital tool for sustainable management. In places like Uganda, where tourism revenues from protected wildlife areas are shared with local communities, the CBD’s approach has proven that conservation can also drive economic development.

A Global Forum for Collaboration

The CBD is not a standalone effort. It thrives on collaboration - between countries, scientific bodies, non-governmental organisations, and international institutions. At the heart of this collaboration is the Conference of the Parties (COP), the CBD’s governing body, where all member countries meet regularly to review progress, set new priorities, and adopt decisions. The COP is more than a meeting; it’s a global forum for sharing ideas, comparing strategies, and holding each other accountable.

To support this collaboration, the CBD has established several key bodies:

• The Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA): This expert committee provides scientific guidance to the COP, ensuring that decisions are based on the latest research and best practices. It’s a bridge between science and policy, helping countries navigate complex issues like the impacts of climate change on biodiversity or the risks posed by biotechnology.
• The Clearing House Mechanism: A digital platform that connects countries, scientists, and organisations worldwide. It serves as a hub for sharing data, technologies, and lessons learned, breaking down barriers to co-operation and accelerating action on the ground.
• The Secretariat: Headquartered in Montreal, this small but dynamic team supports the COP, organises meetings, and assists countries in implementing the CBD’s provisions. It’s the backbone of the convention, ensuring that the global conversation translates into real-world action.

Collaboration with other institutions is woven throughout the CBD’s work

• United Nations programmes and agencies: The CBD works closely with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which played a crucial role in its creation and continues to support its implementation. UNEP’s broader mandate - co-ordinating global environmental efforts - aligns perfectly with the CBD’s goals. To support projects financially, the World Bank is involved for providing low-interest loans, interest-free credit and grants.
• Other biodiversity-related conventions: The CBD collaborates with treaties like the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, ensuring that efforts to protect species, habitats, and ecosystems are co-ordinated and complementary.
• Scientific data providers: Partnerships with providers of substantiated data and expertise like the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, IUCN Red List of Ecosystems and UNEP-WCMC are relevant for decision-making and monitoring of progress that is made . Data from The IUCN Red List are used to calculate the Red List Index (RLI), which is one of the biodiversity indicators used by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to monitor progress towards achieving the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) targets for 2030.
• Financial institutions: The CBD recognises that conservation requires investment. It collaborates with organisations like the World Bank (a UN agency) and Global Environment Facility (GEF) to fund projects that protect biodiversity while supporting sustainable development in developing countries.
• Indigenous peoples and local communities: The CBD explicitly calls for the respect and integration of traditional knowledge, fostering partnerships with indigenous groups who have long been stewards of biodiversity.

Innovative Approaches to Conservation

The CBD is not just about setting goals, it’s about finding creative solutions. One of its most significant contributions is the ecosystem approach, which treats biodiversity as a whole rather than a collection of isolated species or habitats. This approach recognises that forests, wetlands, and coral reefs provide a web of services, such as clean water, pollination, and climate regulation, that sustain life. By promoting sustainable use, the CBD encourages countries to find ways to harness these services without destroying them.

For example, in St. Lucia, the creation of the Soufrière Marine Management Area brought together fishers, conservationists, and local institutions to manage marine resources sustainably. In Tanzania, the Lake Manyara Biosphere Reserve combines conservation with low-impact agriculture, balancing the needs of people and nature. These are not one-size-fits-all solutions; they are tailored to local contexts, reflecting the CBD’s commitment to flexibility and innovation.

The Role of Public Engagement and Education

The CBD’s success depends on more than government action, it requires a cultural shift. The treaty emphasises the importance of raising public awareness and empowering individuals to take part in conservation. Education is a powerful tool: by teaching people about the value of biodiversity and the threats it faces, the CBD aims to build a global movement for change. Whether through farmer field schools in Asia, where rice farmers learn to reduce pesticide use while boosting yields, or community-led initiatives in Latin America, the CBD’s message is clear: everyone has a role to play.

International Day for Biological Diversity
The United Nations has proclaimed 22 May The International Day for Biological Diversity (IDB) to increase understanding and awareness of biodiversity issues. When first created in late 1993, 29 December (the date of entry into force of the Convention of Biological Diversity), was designated IDB. In December 2000, the UN General Assembly adopted 22 May as IDB, and move away from the December date because it was difficult for many countries to plan and carry out suitable celebrations for the date of 29 December, given the number of holidays that coincide around that time of year.

The Road Ahead: Challenges and Opportunities

The CBD faces immense challenges. Biodiversity loss continues at an unprecedented rate, driven by habitat destruction, climate change, and unsustainable consumption – the first man-made mass extinction. Yet, the convention also offers hope. Its legally binding nature ensures that countries take their commitments seriously, while its collaborative framework allows for shared learning and collective action.

Looking to the future, the CBD is evolving. It is increasingly focusing on climate change, recognising that biodiversity and climate are deeply interconnected. It is also strengthening its work on genetic resources, ensuring that the benefits of biotechnology are shared fairly. And it is deepening its partnerships with businesses, cities, and local governments, recognising that conservation must be a mainstream priority, not an afterthought.

A Shared Responsibility

The CBD is more than a treaty - it’s a call to action. It challenges us to rethink our relationship with nature, to value the intricate web of life that supports us, and to act with urgency and solidarity. By working together - across borders, sectors, and generations - the world can turn the tide on biodiversity loss and build a future where both people and nature thrive.

A unique Treaty

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) is a unique international treaty for wildlife conservation under the United Nations focused on conserving migratory wild animals and their habitats globally. Established in 1979 in Bonn, Germany, it is also referred to as the Bonn Convention. All member states of the United Nations are eligible to join CMS as a global intergovernmental framework. The Convention has achieved near-universal membership in Africa and Europe and growing interest in Latin America and Asia, but countries such as Canada, USA, Mexico, Russia, China and almost all of Southeast Asia haven’t joined the CMS (yet?). As of 1 March 2022 the CMS has 133 Parties (132 countries, plus the European Union).

Together with the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the CMS is of vital importance for wildlife conservation on a global scale. By fostering co-ordinated international conservation efforts, including support of research and development of conservation agreements and actions, the CMS plays an important role in addressing the global biodiversity and ecosystems crisis and ensuring that migratory species continue to thrive. Thus the CMS is a key instrument for achieving international biodiversity commitments including the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Migratory species are species of wild animals across land, water, and air which are essential components of the ecosystems that support all life on Earth.
Along their migration routes, they provide vital benefits for people, from pollination of crops, pest control, circulation of vital nutrients and nature-based solutions for climate change mitigation to supporting sustainable livelihoods.
Their migratory nature gives them a special role as ecological keystone species and indicators of the state of our natural world.
Key threats to migratory species include habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, overexploitation, climate change, invasive species and pollution.
Because they traverse national boundaries, regions and even continents, international cooperation is needed for their survival.

as defined by CMS

Migratory species are listed under two CMS Appendices, Appendix I: Endangered species requiring strict protection, and Appendix II: Species needing international co-operation. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is often used as a guide to revise these Appendices.

How is the CMS managed

The governing body of CMS is the Conference of the Parties (COP), which meets every three years to assess progress, amend the CMS Appendices, and set conservation priorities. Between COP meetings, the Standing Committee carries out activities on behalf of the COP. These activities include monitoring the budget and providing guidance to the Secretariat. The Scientific Council, composed of national experts appointed by the Parties and global experts agreed by the COP, provides technical and scientific advice on conservation measures. The CMS Secretariat, based in Bonn, plays a crucial role in advancing implementation of the Convention.

CMS Results

The Convention has - until 2026 - facilitated 7 binding agreements, 19 Memorandums of Understanding, and 5 initiatives, contributing to notable conservation successes.

The Convention has played a crucial role in numerous conservation achievements, including the recovery of the Saiga Antelope population in Central Asia, the resurgence of the Mediterranean Monk Seal in the eastern Atlantic, and significant reductions in the illegal killing of migratory birds in Cyprus and Nagaland, India. Work under the Convention has also advanced effective practices for minimizing adverse impacts on migratory species from infrastructure development, as well as the adoption of key global policies such as commitments on ecological connectivity.

The launch of various animal migration atlases, such as the Atlas for migratory mammals in the Central Asian region in 2019, that was continuously updated and upgraded to an online interactive webtool in 2024.

CMS launched the first State of the World’s Migratory Species Report in 2024, which provided vital information on the conservation status of migratory species, identified key threats, and provided a set of concrete recommendations. The report succeeded in raising global awareness of the importance of migratory species and the actions needed for their survival.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) stands as a cornerstone international agreement, uniting governments worldwide in a shared mission: to ensure that global trade in wild animals and plants does not push any species toward extinction. Born out of the growing recognition in the 1960s that unregulated wildlife trade posed a grave threat to biodiversity, CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975, with the first ten countries ratifying it. Since then, although membership is voluntary, it has grown to become one of the most widely adopted conservation agreements, now encompassing 185 Parties.

The zoo world acknowledged that continuation of sourcing endangered species from the wild would be counterproductive in the end. This caused a shift in zoo policy worldwide, knowing that diversity of animals in the wild was at stake made breeding of endangered species in zoos necessary. Maintaining the diversity of the animal kingdom became the main driver for many zoos. In addition, they understood they had to work together to make breeding endangered species in zoos a success. Taking part in breeding programmes is a requirement to be member of a continental zoo organisation and/or the global zoo organisation WAZA.

The need for CITES was never more apparent than in the scale and diversity of the wildlife trade itself. Annually, international trade in wildlife is estimated to be worth billions of dollars and involves hundreds of millions of plants and animals - from live specimens and fur coats to timber, exotic leather goods, and medicinal products. For many species, the pressure of trade, combined with habitat loss and other pressures, has pushed populations to the brink. While some species are not yet endangered, the convention ensures that their trade remains sustainable, preventing future decline.

At its core, CITES operates through a system of three appendices, each reflecting the level of protection a species requires. Appendix I includes the most endangered species, where international commercial trade is effectively banned unless for exceptional purposes like scientific research. Appendix II covers species that are not yet threatened but could become so if trade is not carefully controlled. Finally, Appendix III lists species protected in at least one country, which has requested international assistance to curb unsustainable or illegal trade. Each Party to the convention designates Management and Scientific Authorities to administer the licensing system and assess the impact of trade on species survival. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is often used as a guide to revise the CITES Appendices.

The convention’s reach extends beyond regulation. The CITES Trade Database, the most comprehensive global record of wildlife trade, holds approximately 25 million records dating back to 1975. It is a vital resource for tracking trade and informing conservation strategies. The convention also fosters collaboration with organisations like INTERPOL, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), and the World Customs Organization through the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC), aiming to tackle the illegal wildlife trade that undermines conservation efforts.

A key milestone in CITES’ advocacy is World Wildlife Day, celebrated every March 3rd. This day serves as a global platform to celebrate the beauty and importance of wildlife, while also highlighting the urgent need to combat wildlife crime, which has far-reaching economic, environmental, and social consequences. The United Nations General Assembly recognised the intrinsic value of wildlife - its ecological, genetic, social, economic, and cultural contributions - and emphasised CITES’ role in preventing trade from threatening species’ survival.

Regional initiatives, such as the African Carnivore Initiative, bring together range states to protect iconic species like lions, cheetahs, leopards, and African wild dogs. These efforts underscore the importance of international co-operation in safeguarding biodiversity and ensuring that trade supports, rather than harms, the survival of wild species.

In essence, CITES is more than a regulatory framework; it is a global commitment to balancing the needs of human societies with the preservation of the natural world. By subjecting international trade to rigorous controls and fostering co-operation, it plays a critical role in reducing the rate of biodiversity loss and protecting endangered species for future generations.

Since its founding in 1948, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has grown into the world’s largest and most diverse environmental network, uniting over 1,400 Member organisations and 17,000 experts across more than 160 countries. As a membership union of governments and civil society, the IUCN stands apart as the only institution that brings together diverse stakeholders - from scientists and NGOs to indigenous peoples and local communities - under a shared mission: Influence, encourage and assist societies to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable.

A Unique Global Authority Safeguarding the Natural World

The IUCN’s global reach and unparalleled expertise make it the unique authoritative voice on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. Unlike many conservation organisations, the IUCN is not just an advocacy group; it is a neutral platform where governments, NGOs, scientists, businesses, and local communities collaborate to solve environmental challenges. While businesses are not eligible for IUCN membership, the Union facilitates partnerships with businesses that bridge sectors, ensuring that conservation efforts are both scientifically robust and socially equitable.

State and government agencies compose about 14% of IUCN’s membership. For these Members, the IUCN provides critical data, analysis, and policy support, helping them design, target, and legitimise effective environmental policies. The Union’s ability to convene and influence - from local to global scales - makes it a powerful catalyst for change.

Driving Conservation Through Expertise and Collaboration

The IUCN’s work is structured around seven expert Commissions, each focused on a distinct aspect of conservation and sustainable development. These Commissions - comprising scientists and experts - drive the Union’s efforts by:

• Analysing issues and preparing assessments, reports, and action plans.
• Undertaking research and other scientific and technical work.
• Providing (policy) advice to and support Members and components of IUCN.
• Supporting Members with technical expertise and capacity-building.
• Broadening knowledge on conservation issues, from ecosystem management to environmental law.

The seven Commissions are:

• Species Survival Commission (SSC): Plays a leading role in assessing the extinction risk of species through the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the gold standard for biodiversity conservation.
• World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA): Develops policy and guidance on protected areas, essential for preserving critical habitats.
• Commission on Ecosystem Management (CEM): Promotes ecosystem-based approaches to managing landscapes and seascapes.
• Commission on Environmental, Economic, and Social Policy (CEESP): Ensures that conservation efforts align with social justice and economic viability.
• Climate Action Commission: Advances nature-positive climate solutions, integrating scientific evidence and indigenous knowledge.
• Commission on Education and Communication; and World Commission on Environmental Law.

These Commissions, along with the IUCN Secretariat - a global team of around 1,000 staff in over 50 countries - work in tandem to implement conservation projects worldwide. The Secretariat manages projects, coordinates support services, and ensures the Union’s strategic vision is realised.

Tools for Conservation: From Policy to Practice

Apart from setting the agenda, providing policy advice, knowledge and on-the-ground work, IUCN also supports conservation around the globe through various grants and other mechanisms. Moreover, the IUCN developed conservation tools to help Members and Partners to achieve its goals. Some of its most impactful conservation tools include:

• The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: The world’s most comprehensive inventory of global conservation status, guiding prioritisation for species protection.
• The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems: Assesses the risk of ecosystem collapse, filling a critical gap in conservation planning.
• PANORAMA – Solutions for a Healthy Planet: A platform sharing successful conservation and restoration projects.
• The Climate Change Resilience and Adaptation Planning Tool: Helps communities and governments prepare for climate impacts.
• IUCN Community Organizing Toolkit on Ecosystem Restoration: Supports local efforts to restore degraded landscapes.

These tools are designed to be practical, scalable, and adaptable, enabling organisations worldwide to design, monitor, and implement conservation strategies that are both effective and equitable.

Other resources

The IUCN resources also share the knowledge gathered by their unique global community of 17,000+ experts. They include databases, tools, analyses, best practices, standards, guidelines and policy recommendations. Most of them gathered in a wealth of books, assessments, reports, briefs and research papers on a wide range of topics they publish every year.

A Hub for Innovation and Partnership

The IUCN’s headquarters in Gland, Switzerland - home to the IUCN Conservation Centre, a LEED Platinum-certified sustainable building - exemplifies its commitment to environmental stewardship. The Centre also hosts other leading organisations like WWF International and the Ramsar Convention, reinforcing the IUCN’s role as a neutral convening space for global conservation efforts.

The Union’s Nature 2030 Programme (2021–2024) sets a decadal ambition, aligning with the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This long-term vision underscores the IUCN’s role as a strategic partner for governments, businesses, and communities seeking to balance development with conservation.

Positioning among Conservation Organisations

While many organisations focus on specific aspects of conservation, such as species protection or habitat restoration, the IUCN’s unique strength lies in its holistic approach. By integrating science, policy, and on-the-ground action, the IUCN bridges gaps between sectors and scales. It is:

• The authoritative source for biodiversity data and assessments.
• A trusted repository of best practices and international standards.
• A convener for diverse stakeholders to collaborate on solutions.

Unlike organisations that operate in silos, the IUCN’s diversity and breadth allow it to address the interconnected challenges of biodiversity loss, climate change, and sustainable development in a cohesive and impactful way.

A Call to Action

The IUCN’s vision - “a just world that values and conserves nature” - is not just aspirational. Through its expertise, tools, and partnerships, the Union is turning this vision into reality. Whether through the Red List, ecosystem restoration, or climate resilience projects, the IUCN is at the forefront of safeguarding the planet’s integrity and diversity of nature for future generations.

Looking ahead the IUCN adopted the Nature 2030 IUCN Programme, which for the first time, sets its ambition over ten years. It is a call for mobilisation to Members, Commissions and Secretariat. This longer-term outlook aligns with the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the post-2020 global biodiversity framework.

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future. At its heart are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are an urgent call for action by all countries - developed and developing - in a global partnership. They recognize that ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and spur economic growth – all while tackling climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests. SDG no.15 ‘Life on Land’ relates entirely to nature conservation and its actions are to protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. Indicators needed to measure progress towards the achievement of the UN-SDGs, particularly Goal 15 are provided by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

So the goals – for the world we envision - are set, but what have we achieved in the real world. The progress as described in the SDG report 2025 is, in my opinion, not very hopeful. In summary:

Global Biodiversity and Ecosystem Trends

Despite progress in adopting legal frameworks for biodiversity and environmental protection, the overall situation remains concerning. Global forest cover continues to shrink, though at a slower pace than in past decades, while conservation efforts for key biodiversity areas have largely stalled since 2015. Meanwhile, species extinction risk has worsened by more than 12% since 1993 (4% since 2015), with particularly severe declines in Central and Southern Asia and Eastern and Southeastern Asia. Land degradation, desertification, drought, and deforestation further threaten ecosystems and human development prospects.

However, there are some positive developments. The proportion of protected key biodiversity areas has increased from 25% in 2000 to 44% in 2024, though this progress has slowed in recent years. Sustainable forest management is improving, with a growing share of forests now under management plans or within protected areas. Additionally, more countries are implementing legislative and policy measures under the Nagoya Protocol and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources, and the adoption of international statistical standards to measure ecosystems and their economic connections has risen by 36% since 2017.

Global initiatives like the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, adopted in 2022, have reinvigorated efforts to conserve and restore ecosystems, promote sustainable land management, and support resilience and livelihoods. Conferences under the UN Convention to Combat Desertification and the Convention on Biological Diversity have also played a key role in mobilizing resources and advancing these goals.

While there is some progress reported, the world must act decisively to bridge gaps, accelerate conservation, and reverse the alarming trends in biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. The SDGs form a coherent set of goals, and no single SDG stands alone. For instance SDG 7(Affordable and Clean Energy), 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure), 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), 13 (Climate Action) and 14 (Life below Water) relate directly to SDG 2 (Life on Land). More specifically, aimed at a sustainably managed world, halting climate change is undeniably essential. Replacing fossil fuels with renewable or more sustainable energy sources is therefore necessary, even if humanity has to bid farewell to further prosperity growth. The theory that our economy must continue to grow endlessly has been debunked from the perspective of sustainability (see, for example, ‘Doughnut Economics’ by Kate Raworth, 2017), something the Club of Rome already concluded in 1972 (see ‘Limits to Growth – The 30-Year Update’ by Meadows, Randers, Meadows, 2004). Naturally, we must distribute wealth more fairly, but well-being in the Western world is (more than) sufficient.

The United Nations Environment Programme - World Conservation Monitoring Centre is a global leader in biodiversity conservation, weaving together science, policy, and practice to create a world where nature and people coexist in harmony. Through collaboration with key organisations like CITES, IUCN, IPBES, and the UN system as such, they are turning the tide on biodiversity loss, restoring ecosystems, and championing a sustainable future for all.

Safeguarding Biodiversity and Championing Nature’s Future

Nestled at the intersection of science, policy, and practice, the United Nations Environment Programme–World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) stands as a beacon of hope in the global fight to protect biodiversity and nurture a sustainable future for all life on Earth. Born from a powerful collaboration between the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), this dynamic organisation is more than just a hub of expertise - it is a catalyst for transformative change, uniting governments, businesses, researchers, and communities under a shared vision: a world living in harmony with nature by 2050.

At the heart of UNEP-WCMC’s mission is the urgent need to address the global nature crisis, where biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation threaten the very foundations of life. The organisation’s team of over 250 experts - spanning scientists, economists, ecological modellers, policy analysts, and sustainability professionals - work to develop and disseminate the best-available knowledge, data, and digital innovations, ensuring that decision-makers in every sector have the tools they need to act with precision and purpose. Their work is not confined to theory; it is rooted in action, driving nature-positive outcomes that benefit both people and the planet.

A Collaborative Force for Conservation

UNEP-WCMC’s strength lies in its unwavering commitment to partnership. By collaborating with leaders across business, government, non-governmental organisations, and research bodies, the organisation strengthens the protection, restoration, and sustainable use of nature on a global scale. Together, they share knowledge, bridge gaps in understanding, and build capacity, creating a ripple effect of positive change. This collaborative spirit is not just a strategy - it is the very essence of their approach, ensuring that conservation efforts are informed, inclusive, and impactful.

The organisation’s work is deeply intertwined with some of the world’s most critical biodiversity agreements and frameworks. As a key partner in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), UNEP-WCMC provides the scientific, policy, and knowledge management support needed to regulate international wildlife trade. Their dedication to species-focused assessments and trade data analyses empowers governments and authorities to make informed decisions, minimising the threat posed by unsustainable trade and safeguarding endangered species.

In another vital collaboration, UNEP-WCMC joins forces with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to maintain and further develop the Protected Planet Initiative. This global platform is the authoritative source for data on the status and trends of protected and conserved areas, serving as the foundation for accountability in meeting international biodiversity targets. It is through initiatives like this that UNEP-WCMC helps monitor progress, build capacity, and deliver better decision-making for nature and people alike. Every two years, UNEP-WCMC releases the Protected Planet Report on the status of the world's protected areas and recommendations on how to meet international goals and targets.

Connecting Ecosystems and Species

Biodiversity does not exist in isolation. Ecological connectivity - the interconnectedness of ecosystems through water, air, nutrients, and species - is a cornerstone of UNEP-WCMC’s work. The organisation champions the conservation of migratory species and the protection of ecological corridors, supporting the implementation of international conventions such as the Convention on Migratory Species and the Convention on Biological Diversity. By enabling countries to assess and monitor connectivity as point of view, UNEP-WCMC ensures that conservation efforts focus on ecosystems and thus more effective, and sustainable.

When habitats are damaged or degraded, ecosystem restoration becomes a lifeline. UNEP-WCMC provides the policy, legal, and planning frameworks needed to scale up restoration efforts, from local initiatives to global ambitions. Their experts create accessible knowledge bases that guide planners and practitioners, prioritising actions that deliver measurable, long-term benefits for both nature and society. Restoration is not just about healing the land; it is about rebuilding resilience and fostering a future where people and nature thrive together.

Nature as a Solution

From climate change mitigation to food security and disease prevention, nature offers solutions to some of humanity’s most pressing challenges. UNEP-WCMC works to ensure these nature-based solutions are recognised, valued, and implemented effectively. By developing tools, data, and knowledge, they empower sectors across society to adopt resilient, nature-positive practices that address global crises while protecting biodiversity.

The organisation also plays a pivotal role in transforming economies to prioritise nature. By supporting businesses, financial institutions, and governments, UNEP-WCMC helps them measure and account for their impacts and dependencies on natural capital. This ensures that economic growth is aligned with ecological health, paving the way for a nature-positive future.

By the way, the theory that our western economy must continue to grow endlessly has been debunked from the perspective of sustainability (see, for example, ‘Doughnut Economics’ by Kate Raworth, 2017), something the Club of Rome already concluded in 1972 (see ‘Limits to Growth – The 30-Year Update’ by Meadows, Randers, Meadows, 2004).

Science and Policy: The Engine of Change

At its core, UNEP-WCMC is a scientific powerhouse. Through ground-breaking applied research, they address critical gaps in knowledge, using modelling, indicators, and cutting-edge technology to drive conservation efforts forward. Their applied science informs policy, enhances the effectiveness of nature-based solutions, and shapes a sustainable future for all.

In the realm of policy, UNEP-WCMC stands as a trusted advisor to governments worldwide. They support the development and implementation of biodiversity policies, equipping decision-makers with the tools to meet national and international targets. Whether through the UN Common Approach to biodiversity or the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, the organisation ensures that nature is not an afterthought, nature is a priority.

A United Front for Biodiversity

UNEP-WCMC’s work is further amplified through its close collaboration with the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), which strengthens the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services. This partnership underscores the organisation’s role as a bridge between research and action, ensuring that the best science informs global conservation strategies.

In every endeavour, UNEP-WCMC remains steadfast in its belief that biodiversity is not a luxury - it is a necessity. By fostering partnerships, harnessing science, and driving policy, they are not just protecting endangered species and ecosystems; they are safeguarding the future of humanity itself.

Bridging Science and Policy for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

Position and Mandate

The Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) was established in 2012 as an independent intergovernmental body, headquartered in Bonn, Germany. It was created not as a formal UN body, but as a global platform to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity conservation, sustainable development, and human wellbeing. Its mandate is to provide objective, scientific assessments on the state of biodiversity, ecosystems, and their contributions to people, as well as to offer policy options and actions for governments, the private sector, and civil society at all levels - local, national, regional, and global.

Membership is open to all States Members of the United Nations. Currently IPBES operates with a membership of about 140 governments. Its secretariat is hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which provides administrative and technical support, though IPBES itself remains an independent entity. This unique positioning allows IPBES to function as a neutral, evidence-based bridge between scientists, policymakers, and stakeholders, ensuring that policy decisions are informed by the latest scientific knowledge.

Collaboration: A Multi-Stakeholder Approach

IPBES’s effectiveness relies on collaborative partnerships with key UN agencies and other international organisations. The platform has formalised institutional links with:

• UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)
• UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organisation)
• FAO (Food and Agriculture organisation of the United Nations)
• UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)

This collaboration ensures a co-ordinated approach to biodiversity and ecosystem services, enabling joint fundraising, capacity-building, technical support, and communication activities. These partnerships are essential for aligning IPBES’s work with broader international agendas and leveraging resources for its assessments and capacity-building initiatives.

Beyond UN agencies, IPBES engages with regional and national platforms, multilateral environmental agreements, and a wide range of stakeholders. These collaborations help facilitate the uptake of IPBES products - such as assessment reports and policy tools - by governments and civil society. For example, a range of platforms and networks on biodiversity and ecosystem services that exist at the national and regional level, play a crucial role in disseminating IPBES findings and supporting the implementation of its recommendations.

Work Programme: From Assessment to Action

IPBES’s 2030 Work Programme outlines six core objectives, each designed to advance the platform’s overarching goal of strengthening the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services:

1. Assessing Knowledge
   IPBES conducts comprehensive assessments on the state of biodiversity, ecosystems, and nature’s contributions to people. These assessments provide the scientific foundation for policy decisions, highlighting trends, risks, and opportunities.
2. Building Capacity
   IPBES invests in capacity-building for individuals and institutions, particularly in developing countries. This includes training on how to produce and use IPBES products, ensuring that governments and stakeholders have the skills to engage effectively with the platform’s work.
3. Strengthening Knowledge Foundations
   The platform promotes the generation and management of data on biodiversity and ecosystem services, ensuring that assessments are robust and up-to-date.
4. Supporting Policy
   IPBES identifies and develops policy instruments, tools, and methodologies to support decision-making. This includes guidance on integrating biodiversity considerations into national and regional planning.
5. Communicating and Engaging
   IPBES prioritises visibility and stakeholder engagement, using outreach activities, media, and partnerships to increase the use of its products. Efforts include organising events, preparing informational materials, and amplifying communications through social and traditional media.
6. Improving Effectiveness
   The platform regularly reviews its own effectiveness, both internally and externally, to ensure it remains responsive to the needs of its members and stakeholders.

Impact on Policymakers: Bridging the Science-Policy Divide

Despite its ambitious goals, IPBES faces a significant challenge: translating scientific assessments into policy action. The first IPBES values assessment revealed a stark reality: less than 5% of valuation studies were incorporated into policymaking. This gap underscores the need for stronger engagement strategies and policy support tools to make IPBES outputs more accessible and actionable for governments.

However, IPBES has made notable strides:

• The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services highlighted the alarming rate of biodiversity loss - with 1 million species at risk of extinction - and identified economic growth as a major driver. This report has been widely referenced in international discussions on biodiversity and climate change.
• The 2022 assessment on ‘Diverse Values and Valuation of Nature’ recognized that societal values and behaviours underpin biodiversity loss. This has influenced debates on how to integrate cultural, ethical, and economic perspectives into biodiversity policies.
• Regional assessments for the Americas, Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, and Central Asia have provided tailored insights for policymakers, addressing regional priorities and challenges.

To enhance its impact, IPBES collaborates with national focal points - designated by each member government - to facilitate communication and engagement between governments and the platform. These focal points play a critical role in promoting the uptake of IPBES products at the national level and ensuring that policy discussions are informed by the latest evidence.

Strategic Approaches for Greater Influence

To bridge the science-policy gap, IPBES is increasingly focusing on:

• Tailored Policy Support: Developing practical, region-specific tools and guidelines to help governments integrate biodiversity considerations into their planning processes.
• Stakeholder Engagement: Strengthening partnerships with indigenous communities, local governments, and the private sector to ensure that assessments reflect diverse perspectives and are more likely to be adopted.
• Capacity-Building: Expanding training programmes for policymakers and practitioners to improve their ability to interpret and use IPBES assessments.
• Communication: Enhancing outreach efforts to simplify complex scientific findings and make them accessible to non-specialist audiences, including through media and public engagement activities.

Conclusion: IPBES as a Catalyst for Change

IPBES stands as a unique and vital platform in the global biodiversity governance landscape. By providing independent, scientific assessments and fostering collaboration among governments, scientists, and stakeholders, it has the potential to drive meaningful policy change. However, its success ultimately depends on its ability to translate knowledge into action - ensuring that its findings are not only produced but also actively used by policymakers worldwide.

For governments, IPBES offers a roadmap for sustainable development, highlighting the urgency of biodiversity conservation and the need for integrated policy responses. For scientists, it provides a channel for impactful engagement with policymakers. For civil society, it serves as a platform for advocacy and participation in global biodiversity governance.

As the world grapples with biodiversity loss, climate change, and unsustainable development, IPBES’s role as a bridge between science and policy becomes ever more critical. Its future impact will hinge on its ability to adapt, innovate, and engage - ensuring that its assessments not only inform but also inspire action.

When Genetic Rescue is Necessary

Biobanking represents a crucial evolution in biodiversity conservation, offering a means to preserve the genetic essence of life on Earth at a time when species are disappearing at unprecedented rates. At its core, biobanking involves the organised collection and long-term cryopreservation of biological materials such as cells, tissues, gametes, embryos, and DNA from wild species. This practice acts as a genetic lifeline, ensuring that even if a species vanishes from its natural habitat, its genetic material remains accessible for future restoration, research, or assisted reproduction. The urgency of this approach is underscored by the reality that nearly one-third of known species are currently threatened with extinction, and human activities continue to drive the sixth mass extinction.

Scope of Biodiversity Banking
The scope of biodiversity biobanking encompasses an impressive range of biological material and institutional types. Plant biobanks range from the Millennium Seed Bank at Kew Gardens in the UK - holding genetic material representing over 10% of all known plant species - to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen, a ‘doomsday’ backup repository for over one million crop seed samples from around the world. China's Germplasm Bank of Wild Species holds samples of over 11,000 plant species, while the Seeds of Success programme in the United States has collected native plant populations representing some 5,600 taxa across 43 states.

Animal biobanks are more heterogeneous in their approaches. A 2025 literature review by Chen and Mastromonaco identified 57 wildlife and zoo biobanks globally, the largest concentration in Europe (18) and the smallest in South America (2). These institutions fall broadly into four strategic categories: blanket approaches (acquiring as many species as possible, regardless of geography), national strategic plans (focused on a country or region's endemic wildlife), taxon-specific programmes (dedicated to particular groups such as amphibians or felids), and combination approaches. The review found that blanket-approach biobanks predominate in North America and Europe, while national strategic plan biobanks are concentrated in Asia.

Zoos have emerged as critical partners in the biobanking effort, transforming from mere exhibitions of wildlife to active contributors to conservation science. Institutions like the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance’s Frozen Zoo®, a subcollection of SDZ’s Wildlife Biodiversity Bank and established in the 1975, demonstrate how zoos have pioneered biobanking for wildlife. A compelling example is the Przewalski’s horse, a species once extinct in the wild. In 1980, cells from a male Przewalski’s horse living in a zoo were cryopreserved. Over four decades later, these cells were used to clone two foals, Kurt in 2021 and another in 2023, reintroducing lost genetic diversity into the managed population. This achievement highlights how zoos, through their biobanking initiatives, can restore genetic variation critical for the long-term sustainability of species and pave the way for eventual reintroduction into native habitats.

The contribution of zoos to biobanking extends beyond this single example. Zoos globally maintain living collections of endangered species, which serve as both assurance populations and sources of biological material for biobanks. Currently, the Frozen Zoo® holds viable cell lines and gametes from approximately 5% of threatened mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles listed on the IUCN Red List. However, nearly 17% of these species are already represented in zoological parks worldwide. This presents a significant opportunity for zoos to expand their role in biobanking by contributing samples from their collections, thereby enhancing the genetic diversity preserved for future conservation efforts.

Biobanks serve as more than just storage facilities; they are dynamic tools that enable a range of conservation applications. By preserving genetic material, they provide the foundation for assisted reproductive technologies such as artificial insemination, in vitro fertilisation, and cloning. These technologies allow for breeding between geographically separated populations without the need for live animal transfers, reducing stress and logistical challenges. For instance, successful artificial insemination using cryopreserved sperm has been achieved in species like the giant panda, Indian rhinoceros, and Magellanic penguin. Additionally, biobanked materials support advanced research in genomics, ecology, and disease, contributing to a deeper understanding of life on Earth and aiding in the development of conservation strategies. This research also aligns with the One Health approach, recognising the interconnectedness of human, animal, and ecosystem health.

Furthermore, biobanks act as a bridge between ex situ and in situ conservation, a concept central to the IUCN’s One Plan Approach. By safeguarding genetic diversity, biobanks ensure that the genetic capital of a species can be maintained and, if necessary, reintroduced into the wild. This continuity between managed and wild populations is essential for the long-term survival of species. For example, the genetic diversity restored through cloning in the Przewalski’s horse population strengthens the potential for successful reintroduction into their native habitats, creating a seamless link between ex situ and in situ conservation efforts.

The global conservation community is increasingly recognising the value of biobanking, as evidenced by its inclusion in international frameworks such as the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Nagoya Protocol and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. These agreements emphasise the importance of biobanking in safeguarding genetic resources and ensuring fair and equitable access to these materials. Additionally, the establishment of collaborative networks like the IUCN’s Animal Biobanking for Conservation Specialist Group, CryoArks in the UK, and the Pan-Smithsonian Cryo-Initiative in the USA reflects a growing commitment to standardisation and co-operation in biobanking efforts.

Zoos, with their established infrastructure and expertise in animal care, are uniquely positioned to contribute to these networks. Many zoos already participate in co-ordinated breeding programmes and can leverage their existing resources to expand biobanking initiatives. For example, the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) Biobank and Nature’s SAFE in the UK demonstrate how regional co-operation among zoos can enhance the preservation of genetic diversity. By sharing samples, data, and best practices, zoos can amplify the impact of biobanking and ensure that genetic resources are preserved for the benefit of global biodiversity.

However, challenges remain in fully realising the potential of biobanking. Technical standardisation, funding limitations, and geographic disparities are significant obstacles. Most wildlife biobanks are currently located in Europe, Asia, and North America, while regions like Africa, South America, and Australia remain underrepresented. Only about 28% of biodiversity hotspots currently host a wildlife biobank, leaving many critical areas without local genetic safeguards. Addressing these gaps requires targeted investment in biobanking infrastructure, particularly in biodiversity hotspots and for underrepresented taxa such as amphibians, reptiles, fish, and invertebrates.

Ethical considerations are also paramount to ensuring that biobanking efforts are equitable and just. The BioRescue project’s adaptation of the ETHAS ethical assessment tool highlights the need to address animal welfare, ownership, and benefit-sharing in biobanking practices. Compliance with frameworks like the Nagoya Protocol ensures that genetic resources are accessed and used fairly, with benefits shared equitably among provider countries and Indigenous communities. Engaging local and Indigenous groups in biobanking initiatives not only respects their rights and traditional knowledge but also strengthens the overall conservation effort.

Despite these challenges, the future of biobanking is promising. Emerging innovations such as dry biobanking, which allows for room-temperature storage of samples, and advancements in stem cell technologies offer new avenues for preserving genetic material in a cost-effective and accessible manner. Additionally, the integration of artificial intelligence and genomics into biobanking can optimise cryopreservation protocols and enhance the understanding of genetic diversity, further supporting conservation breeding programmes.

In conclusion, biobanking, with the significant contributions of zoos, stands as a vital component of modern biodiversity conservation. By preserving genetic diversity, enabling future technologies, and bridging the gap between ex situ and in situ efforts, biobanks offer a means to safeguard biodiversity while it is still extant and provide actionable hope for its recovery when lost. As the conservation community continues to face the challenges of the sixth mass extinction, the strategic integration of biobanking into global conservation strategies will be essential to ensuring a sustainable future for all species.

Resurrecting Lost Species to Restore Biodiversity

De-extinction - the process of reviving species that have disappeared from Earth - has moved from the realm of science fiction to scientific reality over the past few decades. Once confined to the imaginative world of novels like Jurassic Park, de-extinction is now an active field of research that combines advances in traditional DNA sequencing, genome editing, cloning, and assisted reproductive technologies. While the concept captures public imagination and raises profound ethical questions, its primary goal is not merely to ‘bring back’ extinct animals for novelty's sake, but to restore lost ecological functions and contribute meaningfully to biodiversity conservation. As one review noted, "De-extinction presents us with myriad ethical, legal and regulatory questions" (McMahon and Doyle 2020). Yet proponents argue that when applied thoughtfully, this emerging discipline could complement existing conservation strategies and help mitigate the biodiversity crisis.

There is a lack of consensus regarding the definition of de-extinction. A myriad of (conflicting) definitons are put forward by authors of scientific papers just to support their viewpoint in the de-extinction debate (Novak 2018). When taking on board the voice of those who actually take part in de-extinction programmes, the following definition based on IUCN’s description of de-extinction, will suffice in my opinion:

De-extinction is the ecological replacement of an extinct species by means of purposefully adapting a living organism to serve the ecological function of the extinct species by altering phenotypes by means of various breeding techniques, including artificial selection, back-breeding and precise hybridisation facilitated by genome editing.
The goal of de-extinction is to restore vital ecological functions that sustain dynamic processes producing resilient ecosystems and increasing biodiversity and bioabundance.
(Novak 2018)

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