San Diego Zoo

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Visit(s)

28.05.2013

Right from the beginning when I scheduled my California zoo tour I decided to spend two days at San Diego Zoo. The decision to reserve one full day for the Lost Forest was not made before I entered the Zoo yesterday. But it was a good decision, especially because today is less, and I mean less!, crowded. Yesterday was memorial day with many people enjoying their day off at the Zoo, so today it is my turn to enjoy this famous zoo.biggrin

Getting around in the Zoo
There are elevators and escalators to allow the visitors to avoid the sloping footpaths and cover the altitude differences in the Zoo easily. Long distances can be covered by the Sky Safari cable car and open top double decker buses.

Lost Forest
 Orangutan environmental enrichmentSo where to start? Well, after the entrance I just go straight ahead to the orangutans. They have both orangutan subspecies on display, three Sumatran and one old female Bornean (born around 1962). The Zoo keeps them together in one enclosure and do not breed them. Karen the female Sumatran orangutan made the news in 1994 as the first zoo orangutan to undergo open-heart surgery. The orangutans are housed together with siamangs. According to a zookeeper the male siamang, though smaller in size, acts as if he is the boss and the enclosure is his territory and the orangutans are intruders. The siamangs are a couple since 1987, and together they have parented seven babies. The enclosure has got a large viewing window along the total length of the exhibit. A few trees and shrubs enhance the enrichment of bamboo poles and ropes, next to some trees of metal poles. Thus, the animals are encouraged to climb and express natural behaviour like nest building. Additional enrichment is provided by the termite mound that is filled everyday with treats such as barbecue sauce and baby food. To reach these delicacies they had to learn to use sticks, like in real nature.

As I didn't have enough time yesterday for a good look at both the Owens and the Parker Aviary I pay these walk-through aviaries another visit. It turns out they have a different geographical focus. Owens is focussed on south-east Asia and the Malay archipelago, while the Parker Aviary mainly contain bird species from South America, and a few species from New Guinae/Australia such as the fawn-breasted bowerbird (Chlamydera cerviniventris). Another walk-through aviary is the Scripps Aviary, which is focussed on African bird species. All aviaries in the Lost Forest area are huge and allow free flight.

Then I retrace a few of my steps back to the enclosure with the eastern black-and-white colobus monkey and black mangabeys. Here they have used the hilly grounds of the Zoo's location to build an interesting set of multilevel walkways. With the tiger trail going under the monkey trail for instance, and there's a balcony walkway that allows viewing from an interesting angle at the monkey enclosure. It is not clear to me whether the monkey species really share the exhibit at the same time or if they rotate the animals to provide environmental enrichment (by scent) in addition to the artificial climbing facilities.

wolfs guenon mixed speciesAdjacent, a mixed species exhibit comprises red-tailed monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius ascanius), lesser spot-nosed guenon (Cercopithecus petaurista), Wolf's guenon (Cercopithecus wolfi wolfi) and mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx). The enclosure construction is similar as the one with the colobus monkey and mangabey, but larger, while on one side the fence is completely hidden by bamboo foliage.

Another enclosure with Wolf's guenon is much nicer, because it contains all the ingredients of their original habitat with jungle features such as trees, multilevel undulating grounds, a canyon-like stream. A specialty is the fact that the guenon share the exhibit with pygmy hippopotamuses that have access to the pool with many fish.

The red-cheeked gibbon would appreciate a higher enclosure I assume. It is strange that these tree-dwelling apes, that reside high up in the canopy in the wild, have a lower roof than all other primates. Except for the ones that live in an open top enclosure like the siamang, another gibbon subspecies.

An absolutely gorgeous exhibit is the one for the bonobo troop. At least 9 bonobos occupy a canyon-like enclosure with several waterfalls and a stream. This could the bonobos remind of the rainforest of Democartic Republic of Congo, the only place in the world - south of the Congo River and north of the Kasai River - where they can still be found in the wild. There are excellent views from the main viewing area on the animals against the backdrop of the rock face rear wall. The latest bonobo baby was born in 2007.

It is notable that the Zoo decided not to develop monkey islands as modern bar-less landscape immersion exhibit, while many zoos modernise by introducing such island exhibits for primate species. I must admit that these facilities are not inferior to the island design, absolutely not.

Gorilla enclosureThe gorilla enclosure is really great. On one side there are so many waterfalls that it is hard to have a conversation. One part of the outdoor enclosure is bordering the glass window viewing theatre, while the rest is nicely hidden from the inquisitive eyes of the visitors.

To ensure that I miss nothing I go back where I left the tiger trail and start following that one again. Via a trail partly sheltered by foliage I arrive at the fishing cat enclosure that provide several levels and a big waterfall and pool. The few hiding places and minimal vegetation does not necessarily resemble the cat's original habitat, although fishing cats are strongly associated with wetlands. They are typically found in swamps and marshy areas, oxbow lakes, reed beds, tidal creeks and mangrove areas and are more scarce around smaller, fast-moving watercourses. The cat is in a very good condition, in other words it is very fat!

While getting closer to the Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni), the trail runs through an area that resembles a rainforest because of the valley in which it is situated and because the sun is blocked by the foliage of the trees, which filters the light. The tiger enclosure itself is situated uphill and comprises a few trees (not protected from scratching behaviour), a stream and a pool close to the visitor's side. The only tiger on display is very restless, but that is probably due to the approaching lunch.

Strangely, opposite the tiger exhibit the pygmy marmosets from South America are housed. This appears to be an opportunistic way of zookeeping, a left-over spot perhaps, but from the perspective of educational value it is a strange message.

View from treetops cafeIn the Lost Forest the main footpath - called easy street as it is the easiest way going uphill - leads to the Treetops cafe, from where you have a magnificent view on large parts of the Zoo. From easy street trails start with names like Tiger trail, Hippo trail and Monkey trail, based on their main destinations. A combination of these trails, of which some parts are sloping or have some serious staircases along the way, allows you to see all of this magnificent part of San Diego Zoo. And yes, I do prefer the Lost Forest above the other areas of the Zoo. Mainly because it is built according more modern design, taking into account the needs of the animals and landscape immersion principles.

Information at the Zoo
Signage - information panels: very brief but to the point info, nothing being said about nutritional needs and foraging behaviour.

One of the highlights of San Diego Zoo, I think, is the mixed species exhibit at the end of the Hippo trail, or the beginning as it depends on where you start of course. This magnificent enclosure with African species provides great environmental enrichment simply because of its design alone. An elevated walkway runs through it with on one side a swamp area and on the other side a pond both on ground level, accessible for Allen's swamp monkey, Schmidt's red-tailed monkey and African spotted-necked otter. There is a waterfall originating at another large pond, and there's another part on higher grounds where red river hogs and forest buffalo roam around. I thought the enclosure was especially otter-friendly, but as far as I could tell, the monkeys - who have mirrors as enrichment tools - could venture to the higher grounds as well. This means that only the hoofed species do not have access to all parts of the exhibit, because they can't go to the lower pond and swamp area. Nevertheless, the interaction possibilities, via encounters or just scent, makes this a challenging enclosure for all I would say (see video). By the way, I don't expect the otter to seek contact with the ungulates. It is a very agile swimmer, but its large webbed feet makes it very clumsy on land - in its original habitat in Africa it will rarely go far from the river bank. It's a pity the otter is the sole representative of its kind, because these African spotted-necked otters are very social and in the wild they normally live in packs that may include as many as twenty animals, but on average no more than about five1.

Hippopotamus pondThe official destination of the Hippo trail is of course the hippopotamus enclosure. A very large pool with crystal clear water and a few fish, where the two hippos and their offspring, the youngster born on 26.01.2011, can swim and wade to their heart's content. The young hippo will be moved to Los Angeles Zoo shortly, according to a zookeeper. The underwater viewing opportunities are excellent and extensive, alongside the pool.

After walking up to the upper Sky Safari station and having a quick look at the polar bears again, I take the cable car down to visit the part of the Zoo I have neglected so far. The Discovery Outpost with the Zoo's reptiles section. The views from the cable car are beautiful, and it allows you to better appreciate the differences in altitude of the Zoo premises. The Reptile House, besides Komodo dragon, has a large and diverse collection of venomous and non-venomous snakes and other reptiles. Especially species you do not see often in zoos, such as king cobra, West-African dwarf crocodile, Mangshan pit viper (Protobothrops mangshanensis), Ethiopian mountain viper (Bitis parviocula), and Jerdon's pit viper (Protobothrops jerdonii). All of these species are on display in typical and rather small vivariums you'll see in many zoos today, still. There is one odd thing, because in this row of vivariums there is also a ridiculously small enclosure for a Komodo dragon. Hopefully, this is a temporarily solution, because there is a large enclosure, with woodchips bottom covering and bamboo bushes, outside the Reptile House for a Komodo dragon as well. Last but not least there's an exhibit with California native reptile species, and a huge exhibit with all different kinds of giant tortoise species from the Galapagos Islands.

Conclusion
The sheer size of the place, the number of species and the landscape immersion with many surprises around every corner makes this an impressive zoo. Nevertheless, on my first day when I visited all of the exhibit areas north from center street and park way - Urban Jungle, Outback, Africa Rocks, Elephant Odyssey, Northern Frontier, Panda Trek and Panda Canyon - I felt that the Zoo could do with some restructuring there. Because especially the Urban Jungle was just an endless row of, mostly large, enclosures without a clear grouping of their collection. I could not become enthusiastic about the Big Cat trail, with its small enclosures, while the size of the herds of most of the hoofed species should be enlarged in my opinion to improve their welfare and allow them to show natural behaviour. This would require enlargement of their exhibits as well of course, but that would require a decision to reduce the number of species on display. Well, I am in favour of the latter, but it's easier said than done. At the same time the Zoo should be given credits for opening the Safari Park in Escondido in 1972, because that is how a Zoo should look like in my honest opinion.

On my second day, I got a different impression of the Zoo when I strolled through the Lost Forest - a very green area on the hilly grounds of Balboa Park with a surprising layout and modern state-of-the-art exhibits. Most of the animals had ample opportunity to hide from the public if they wanted to, while I could wander around via sheltered paths and sometimes enjoy the peaceful setting of the jungle-like environment. In other words, I highly recommend the Lost Forest as the main attraction of San Diego Zoo.

In general I noticed that they don't have many specimens of most species on display, which doesn't mean that there could be more specimens off-exhibit for instance for breeding purposes. Of course there are exceptions, such as large numbers of tufted capuchin, gorilla, bonobo, Speke's gazelle in the mixed species exhibit, and Maasai giraffe. Another remarkable thing for such a zoo with so much space and many species is that they have no Amphibians on display. At least, I haven't seen them.



1 Otters - ecology, behaviour and conservation by Hans Kruuk, 2008

3500 BCE

Nekhen, Egypt

The oldest known zoological collection was revealed during excavations at Nekhen in 2009 of a menagerie that dates to about 3500 BCE. Nekhen was the religious and political capital of Upper Egypt at the end of prehistoric Egypt (3200–3100 BCE). The graves revealed remnants of 14 animals in total, including a leopard, two crocodiles, hippopotami, hartebeest, two elephants, baboons, and African wildcats. Read more

2100 BCE

Mesopotamia

In the Mesopotamian region flourishing city-states developed along the Tigris and Euphrate rivers. This area was suitable for agriculture but lacked resources to sustain other technologies. Thus, trade developed over time, and with increasing prosperity the Mesopotamian merchants started trading wild exotic animals as well. These animals became part of animal collections of royalty and wealthy individuals, the one even more impressive than the other. Royalty kept lions and other animals, such as ibis, cranes, herons, pelicans, elephants, ostriches, gazelle and ibex, for exhibition purposes. Royal lions were kept in cages and pits during the Third Dynasty of Ur around 2100 BCE.

The Indus civilization

The Indus civilization along the Indus river in a region what is now Pakistan domesticated animals, in particular elephants. Also they traded wild animals with Mesopotamian merchants, such as elephants, tigers, rhinoceroses and antelope. Authenticating seals used on traded cargo depicting these wild animals give evidence of this. Although no direct evidence exists, it is thought that animal collections have been part of the Indus society due to the above and the fact that wealthy people had access to other ancient societies that held animal collections.

1500 BCE

Expeditions to the Land of Punt

Under the rule of Hatshepsut, the only Egyptian female pharaoh, ambitious and famous expeditions took place to the Land of Punt, in present-day Somalia, between 1510 and 1490 BCE. Many trade goods were bought in Punt, and Egypt had a new supply of myrrh, trees, ebony, ivory, gold, cinnamon, incense, eye paint, skins of southern panthers, and live animals. Like many civilizations that accumulate wealth, Hatshepsut took an interest in exotic animals and ordered to collect live animals, too. The animals brought to Egypt from Punt included apes, monkeys, birds, greyhounds, cattle, leopards, cheetahs, rhinoceroses, and giraffes. They formed the largest known animal collection in Egypt to that time. It is unknown how the animals were housed or maintained, despite the fact that the greatness of the acquisitions was depicted in murals.

1300 BCE

Pharaoh Ramesses II

Egyptian domestications attempts included many different kinds of native wild ruminants and carnivores. These animals were fattened on bread dough, as were many kinds of birds. A variety of birds were kept in domestic flocks, particularly geese and ducks, but also swans, doves and cranes. Wealthy Egyptians at all times kept menageries, in which they brought up the animals taken by the lasso or by the dogs in the desert, as well as those brought into Egypt by way of commerce or as tribute. Egyptians particularly liked to tame as many of these species as possible. Pharaoh Ramesses II for instance had, besides an extensive animal collection of African species originating from the Punt expeditions, a tame lion that not only accompanied him into battle, but also guarded the royal tent at night.

1050 BCE

China , Zhou dynasty

In China it was during periods of unification (the dynasties) that significant animal collections, including exotic species, were developed. These collections served the practical purpose of ritiual sacrifice as well as aesthetical purposes for the wealthy class. These animals were kept in parks or breeding grounds. It started with the Shang dynasty (1600-1050 BCE), but the first well-known animal reserve was created by the founder of the Zhou dynasty (1550-221 BCE), Wen Wang. These animal reserves or parks were large, walled-in natural areas that required their own staffs of administrators, keepers and veterinarians.

700 BCE

First ‘suitable’ animal enclosures

In Mesopotamia Sennacherib's predecessors kept a variety of animals in parks. Herds of deer, gazelle and ibex for instance were transported from conquered territories to Assyria, and species like lions, apes, ostriches and falcons of which some species were never before seen in Assyria. Not only animals were imported, also foreign trees and fruiting plants. But, Sennacherib was the first to create dedicated areas for these exotic animals and plants as an ecosystem exhibit. He is also believed to be the creator of the famous hanging gardens of Babylon, which were actually at the palace garden of Sennacherib located at Nineveh.

330 BCE

Greek animal collections

The Greek interest in science reflected their attitude towards animals which went beyond observational knowledge. Animals played a central role in their culture and mythology, and their animal collections during this period were not just about displaying power, but also about understanding the animal kingdom. Due to the military campaigns into Asia by Alexander the Great, the Greek not only expanded their territory significantly but their curiosity horizon as well. Alexander sent many exotic animals back to Aristotle. Philosophers like Aristotle studied animals for scientific purposes, and his writings indicate a rudimentary approach to zoology. Whether the animals remained alive and maintained in collections is still unknown.

27 BCE - 476 CE

Roman Empire

The Roman view on nature was similar to the Greek attitude, practical and utilitarian. In other words use natural resources productively. Meaning that extensive agriculture, deforestation, mining and hunting had significant environmental consequences. So at the end of the reigning period of the Roman Empire (around 500 CE) they had depleted many of their natural resources, including wild animals in conquered territories in Europe, Africa and Asia. These exotic species, such as lions, leopards, ostriches, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, monkeys, rhinoceroses and elephants were captured or diplomatic gifts and sent back to Rome.

Animal entertainment in the Roman Empire

Early Roman Republic baiting (around 500 BCE), where animals were used to attack another animal, evolved into increasingly elaborate spectacles called venationes. These type of public spectacles featured contests between beasts or between men (prisoners) and beasts staged in an amphitheatre, usually in connection with gladiator shows. Lions, hyenas, leopards, giraffes, and rhinos entered the arena and were, in most cases, killed. The scale of this slaughter was enormous, with over 9,000 animals being ordered, transported and killed for a single event: the inauguration of the Colosseum in Rome in 80 CE. The animals must have been sourced from animal collections, but not much has been written about how and where the animals were kept. When the animals were not scheduled for fighting, they were used in yearly parades honouring those who passed away.

500 CE

The end of terrible animal abuse

The disintegration of the Roman infrastructure led to the loss of the Roman animal collections, and fortunately the abuse during the venationes. Monarchs, monasteries and municipalities, however, continued to keep their wild animal collections in villa gardens, large parks and hunting reserves. It were these collections, that continued to the Medieval period, and emerged as the menageries of the aristocracy during the Renaissance period. Again, or perhaps still, the animals were considered symbols of power and wealth.

500 - 1500 CE

Persian and Arab animal collections

When the Islamic caliphate expanded (ca. 622-1492 CE), gardens and parks that were influenced by the Persian re-creations of the Garden of Eden were introduced in conquered territories. Although natural sciences, unlike other sciences, were not considered important by the Arabs, animal collections were kept in those parks. For instance Abderrahman III (912-961 CE) established an animal park in the city of Zahra north of Cordoba, Spain. Here, animals were kept in cages and fenced enclosures. These Arab collections continued through the Medieval and into the Renaissance period. During both periods, animals were exchanged between European and Muslim rulers.

Medieval animal collections

During the Middle Ages in Europe, the keeping of exotic animals became a symbol of royal privilege. The first zoos emerged as private menageries, being spectacles of power and wealth enjoyed exclusively by royalty, the Church and the aristocracy. The animals were seen as exotic collections to be displayed, rather than living creatures deserving of compassion. Tigers, lions, bears, and elephants were kept in cramped cages or chained up, with bare stone floors and minimal shelter from the elements. But this was of little concern to the menagerie owners. The animals existed solely for the amusement of their high-status visitors. The menageries existed in many countries, such as England, Switzerland, Holland, Denmark, France, Italy and the Vatican. Pope Leo X kept tropical birds, lions, leopards, other cats and mammals.

Aztec and Inca animal collections

Aztec and Inca civilizations were continuations of Americas’ earlier civilizations that may be as old as those of the Old World. They reached their heights and flourished between 1400 and 1500 CE. The Aztecs were well-structured and traded throughout the Americas. Extensive gardens and royal forests contained impressive animal collections. The Aztec emperor Montezuma II, in what is today Mexico, maintained one of the earliest animal collections in the Western Hemisphere. It was destroyed by Hernan Cortes during the Spanish conquest in 1520, who left in writing detailed descriptions of the beauty and value of what he destroyed. The Incas, like the Aztecs, had animal collections and gardens, both real and artificial. No detailed information on these collections was left by Pizarro, who conquered the Inca civilization.

1500 - 1600 CE

Public access to private collections

During the Renaissance period the rich elite occasionally allowed naive citizens to view their collections. The Medici family in Florence was one of the first to allow public viewing of their menagerie, after relocation of their collection to San Marco in 1550, via a viewing area in the adjacent amphitheatre*. Thus, setting the stage for the zoos that would follow. This introduction to exotic wildlife to the public accelerated when travelling menageries came into existence and zoos were founded which allowed the common people to visit their grounds.

1600 - 1800 CE

The Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment in Europe was an intellectual and philosophical movement in the 17th and 18th century during which new ideas and world views were developed. There was a surge for intellectual and scientific progress, which fundamentally changed the interaction of mankind with the natural world. It was during this era that the concept of the zoo became more than merely a public spectacle. There was more attention for the study and conservation of animals and nature in general.

1752

Tierpark Schönbrunn in Vienna

Tierpark Schönbrunn in Vienna, the oldest existing zoo in the world, founded.

1793

Menagerie du Jardin des Plantes in Paris

Menagerie du Jardin des Plantes in Paris founded.

1826

London Zoo

London Zoo founded with a clear scientific mandate, which marked a significant evolution in the concept of zoos.

Many more cities established zoos

Many cities in Europe and North America followed by establishing their own zoo, responding to people’s growing fascination with exotic places and animal, and often inspired by the model of London Zoo. Hence, the role of the zoo altered, and the zoo became a place where education, research, and leisure converged, allowing people from all backgrounds to engage with and learn about nature, specifically the animal world.

1870 - 1958

Indigenous tribes on display

In the 1870s and 1880s it became common to display groups of indigenous peoples from Africa, Asia, South America and the Pacific Islands. These peoples were seen as scientifically "primitive" or "exotic". The so-called "ethnographical displays" were travelling exhibitions, but were also part of entertainment in zoos. It died out after World War II. Oddly it was Hitler who first banned them. The last was in Belgium in 1958.

Poster announcement for a Sinhalese (people from Sri Lanka) ethnographic exhibition by Carl Hagenbeck in 1886

1874

Philadelphia Zoo

America’s first zoo, Philadelphia Zoo opened its gates to the public on 1 July 1874.

1900 -

The Hagenbeck revolution

In the early 1900s the way animals were exhibited in zoos changed. Carl Hagenbeck, a German animal entrepreneur from Hamburg, decided that his travelling exhibition of animals and indigenous people should be on display at a permanent home, the Hagenbeck Tierpark (Hamburg Zoo). More importantly, the animals had to be displayed with an unobstructed view in a natural setting. So, the bar-less, moated open-air enclosures with panoramic views were introduced. As practically every major zoo, circus or private collector in the world bought animals from Hagenbeck the animal handler, his ideas on zoo design spread fast.

1907

Hagenbeck Tierpark

Hagenbeck Tierpark in Hamburg was founded by Carl Hagenbeck and opened its gates to the public on 7 May.

Nature depleted of its wildlife

The ever increasing number of zoos needed exotic animals urgently, while these exotic species often died in captivity without producing offspring. Therefore, wild animal traders like Carl Hagenbeck sourced their animals in the wild. This raised concern, because it became clear that a dramatic number of species was decreasing in the wild at the beginning of the 20th century. The planet’s biodiversity needed protection and conservation.

1914-1945

The World Wars

Both World Wars had a rather devastating effect on zoos, especially in Western Europe. Lack of staff, food, feed and fuel, and destruction by bombs led to a decreased number of species and specimens, let alone that hungry citizens went after the zoo animals.

1929 -

European bison

European bison, or wisent, once roamed wild throughout large parts of Europe. However, European bison went nearly extinct in the wild, except for 54 animals remaining in European zoos. Fortunately, a breeding programme initiated in Poland in 1929 managed to save Europe’s largest land mammal. The European bison now has its own EAZA Ex-situ Programme (EEP). Thanks to the conservation efforts, reintroduction projects and breeding centres, bison population is now growing and spreading. In December 2015 there were 6,000 bison in Europe: 4,400 in the wild or living in semi-wild conditions and 1,600 in captivity. Saving the European bison from extinction is considered one of the biggest successes in European conservation for which zoo populations were essential. Nevertheless, European bison is still a vulnerable species and zoo populations are still essential, and more work needs to be done in the continued conservation efforts of this impressive species within Europe. Read more

1935

World Association of Zoos and Aquariums

WAZA, founded in 1935 during the interbellum, is the "umbrella" organization for the world zoo and aquarium community.

1960 -

Focus shift towards conservation, animal welfare and education

Nature’s state of affairs at the beginning of the 20th century was not forgotten after the wars. So, after rebuilding and repopulating their own zoo, the zoos began to shift their focus from mere exhibition to conservation and education. This marked the beginning of ethical considerations, for the first time in the history of zoos. Growing public interest in animal rights and criticism of welfare standards in zoos led to questioning the concept of zoos as such - causing the many zoos and zoo organisations to re-evaluate their role.

Zoo conservation efforts

During the 1980s and 1990s many individual zoos started to put more emphasis on the role of conservation in their activities. Jersey Wildlife Park (now Durrell Zoo) was one of the pioneers of this new kind of zoo which kept wild animals primarily for conservation purposes, identifying a threefold purpose of biological study, captive breeding for reintroduction, and education and training, all focussed on actively supporting the survival of threatened species.

Animal welfare improvements

To improve animal welfare zoo management slowly accepted that enclosure design should be made fit for purpose. The purpose being to facilitate the animal to express natural behaviour, including climbing, seek shelter and social interaction. And easy to clean barren cages of concrete did not fulfil the requirements. So, building on the concept of Hagenbeck, enclosure design embraced natural settings with trees, shrubs and boulders.

Endangered species breeding programmes

The zoo world acknowledged that continuation of sourcing endangered species from the wild would be counterproductive in the end. This caused a shift in zoo policy worldwide, knowing that diversity of animals in the wild was at stake made breeding of endangered species in zoos necessary. Maintaining the diversity of the animal kingdom became the main driver for many zoos. In addition, they understood they had to work together to make breeding endangered species in zoos a success. Taking part in breeding programmes is a requirement to be member of a continental zoo organisation and/or the global zoo organisation WAZA.

1972 -

Arabian oryx

In 1972 the Arabian oryx was officially declared extinct in the wild. An ambitious rescue plan led by the Fauna Preservation Society (now known as Fauna & Flora) had been developed in the 1960s, Operation Oryx. A few specimens of the last surviving individuals in what is now South Yemen, were captured. Captive breeding was set up with the zoo community, with contributions of Phoenix Zoo, London Zoo, San Diego Zoo and more. The ex situ breeding proved to be very successful, with 1,600 Arabian oryx distributed over the world zoo community by 1992. Returning them to the wild was a bigger problem, because hunting by poachers still was the main threat. Nonetheless, the IUCN was able to reclassify the Arabian oryx as Vulnerable in 2011, but hunting remain a serieus threat to this day.

1982 -

California condor

In the 1960s the California condor was facing extinction due to the destruction of habitat, poaching, and lead poisoning. In 1982 it was decided - when only 22 birds remained in the wild - that all the remaining condors would be brought in for protection and captive breeding. San Diego Zoo Global was given permission to begin the California Condor Recovery Project. The programme involved the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, California Department of Fish and Game, the National Audubon Society, and the Los Angeles Zoo. The project became one of the best examples of recovery programmes of endangered species. Already in 1991 they started to release captive-bred condors into their native habitat, and within 20 years the population of California condors grew to almost 200 birds. It required development of techniques to avoid the condor chicks to know they were actually hand-raised by humans. In October 2014, the total population of California condors was 425, of which 219 living in the wild. Today, captive-bred condors have been successfully released into the wild in Arizona, and Baja California, Mexico. More than 50 California condors now join the population every year, and more importantly 12 to 15 chicks now hatch in the wild annually.

1992

European Association of Zoos and Aquaria

EAZA is founded in 1992 and works to facilitate cooperation within the Europe and Western Asia zoo and aquarium community towards the goals of education, research and conservation. Its parent organisation is WAZA.

1994 -

Socorro dove

The last record of an individual of the Socorro dove in its natural habitat, Socorro Island on the Revillagigedo Archipelago (Mexico), was in 1972. Nonetheless, it took the IUCN 12 years to officially declare the Socorro dove extinct in the wild. The decline and extinction in the wild of this species is caused by human predation, high levels of understorey grazing by sheep, and predation by feral cats. However, doves that were brought to California in 1925 allowed for captive breeding in the USA and later in Europe. Today, facilities in Europe, the United States, and now Mexico breed Socorro Doves in their aviaries as part of the globally managed breeding programme. Currently there are circa 150 birds in captivity. Reintroduction of the species in the wild on Socorro Island requires careful planning, because habitat destruction and predation must be avoided at all times.

1996 -

Przewalski horse

Przewalski's horses once ranged throughout Europe and Asia. Competition with man and livestock, as well as changes in the environment, led to the horse moving east to Asia, and eventually becoming extinct in the wild. Today they can only be found in reintroduction sites in Mongolia, China, and Kazakhstan. The Przewalski horse was declared extinct in the wild from the 1960s up to the official assessment in 1996. The IUCN reassessed the species in 2008 due to at least one surviving mature individual in the wild, so this led to the classification of critically endangered. Due to successful reintroductions of captive-bred horses at zoos, the population in the wild is currently estimated to consist of more than 50 mature individuals free-living in the wild for the past seven years. This apparently allows for another upgrade on IUCN’s scale in 2011, and make it just endangered. The small population size and restricted range, make the wild Przewalski horse vulnerable for potential hybridization with domestic horses, loss of genetic diversity, and disease.

2000 -

Enhanced animal care and conservation efforts

In zoos and umbrella organisations on regional and global level, advancing technology and knowledge are taken into account in policies and budgeting. Money is used for hands-on research for developing better husbandry and care systems next to conservation projects on location for better understanding of the causes and consequences of the degradation of natural habitats on wildlife populations. The ultimate goal of research collaboration between zoos, research institutions and universities is to preserve the species at stake.

Enhanced visitor engagement

To get across the message of the current state of global and local nature, its biodiversity and measures needed to preserve or improve this, it is important that zoo visitors get the information in such a way that the message will stick. To enhance the educational outreach many zoos use mobile apps to inform the visitors and help them tour the zoo grounds. Zoos offer close encounters with the animals - via feeding sessions or via walk-through exhibits or other kind of immersive enclosure design - to make the experience of the zoo visit more impressive. However, current technology can enhance these experiences to another level. Zoos are experimenting with augmented reality and virtual reality to assist their educational efforts. Especially virtual reality, where people immerse in a fully digital world can create experiences beyond people’s imagination. It will trump the static signs at the enclosures with lots of text to read when it comes to the take-home message.

Zoos become important for global biodiversity strategies

By addressing biodiversity conservation via research and educational efforts, zoos become important players in the implementation of global biodiversity strategies. They contribute to the achievement of targets set by international agreements like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By participating in these global efforts, zoos help to address critical issues such as habitat loss, climate change, and species extinction.




* Lazzaro, Claudia. (2019). Animals as Cultural Signs: Collecting Animals in Sixteenth-Century Medici Florence. 10.4324/9780429399671-32.

What about




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about zoos and their mission regarding breeding endangered species, nature conservation, biodiversity and education, which at the same time relates to the evolution of species.

Goal: 7000 tigers in the wild

Tiger range countries map

 

"Tiger map" (CC BY 2.5) by Sanderson et al., 2006.

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