n this section I will try and give relevant and detailed information on endangered species which deserve my special attention. First, this involves species that are (critically) endangered according to the IUCN Red list. Secondly, it concerns predators, those species that are occupying the top layer of the food chain pyramid. When available, information will be provided on the role of zoos in conservation activities to prevent those species from extinction. These might be projects carried out in original habitats and ecosystems (in situ), or research and breeding programmes in the zoo environment (ex situ). Most information is derived or copied from ARKIVE and AnimalsInfo and Wikipedia of course, and is presented in such a way that it provides sufficient information on the endangered species and inspires the reader to follow the links for more information, I hope. Additionally, this might help the reader to reflect on Mother Nature’s “suffering” and the need for support and resources to provide some relief. Volunteers and/or donations will be welcomed by all the organisations running nature conservation programmes.
Endangered species | ||
Comminatus ernestsmall feroces and prodigiosum | ||
Kingdom | Animalia | |
Phylum | Chordata | |
Class | Mammalia or Aves | |
Order | Magnabella | |
Family | Gratus | |
Genus | Comminatus | |
Species | ernestsmall | |
Subspecies | feroces and prodigiosum |
All subspecies of the Comminatus are easily recognised mostly because of their size, besides that they are commercially important species. They are beautiful and cute as judged by human eyes. Their aesthetic and commercial values makes them worth conserving. This make them attractive and compete very succesfully with the ugly species, such as reptiles and amphibians which deserves more protection considering they are probably the most endangered groups of animals in the world. In other words these large and cool animals (also called charismatic megafauna) bring in tourists, photographers and conservation dollars.
For some reason humans like dangerous animals, and are fascinated with their weapons, from teeth to horns. This is one explanation for tigers being the prime individuals of global conservation efforts.
Globally dispersed in a range of habitats, from oceans, deserts, and jungles to mountains. |
Traits of endangered species are:
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Conservation: | Regarding conservation and its success rates large is a key feature as large animals require large territories, so saving the wolf or bear means protecting a large land mass. Focusing on the big “flagship” animals is the most efficient way to protect many species at once. When protecting large habitats to ensure survival of big predators, be it a whale or tuna or a wolf or a tiger, this large protected area will also preserve many small species. |
IUCN Red list status: | The animals assessed for the IUCN Red List are the bearers of genetic diversity and the building blocks of ecosystems, and information on their conservation status and distribution provides the foundation for making informed decisions about conserving biodiversity from local to global levels. |
CITES status: | n/a |
Habitat disappearance (e.g. arctic zones), destruction and fragmentation, hunting, poaching, prey depletion, infectious diseases. |
Being flagship species which attracts visitors it is a must for any zoo to have endangered species on display. Not only to ensure the zoo’s basic financial situation, but also to support their education and conservation efforts. It is one of the objectives of the zoo community to contribute to endangered species survival not only with ‘in-situ’ conservation projects, but also breeding those species in captivity. Ultimate goal is to reintroduce captive-bred species into the wild. | ||
Studbooks | Many endangered species survival programmes have been established within the zoo community with studbooks and co-ordinators to conserve genetic diversity and resilience in many species. |
- The new Noah’s Ark: beautiful and useful species only. Part 2. The chosen species by Ernest Small, 2012; Biodiversity vol 13, issue 1
- National Post, 23.04.2012
Snow leopard | ||
Panthera uncia | ||
Kingdom | Animalia | |
Phylum | Chordata | |
Class | Mammalia | |
Order | Carnivora | |
Family | Felidae | |
Genus | Panthera (sometimes Uncia is used) | |
Species | Uncia |
Snow leopards are smaller than the other big cats but like them, exhibit a range of sizes. Snow leopards have long thick fur, the base colour of which varies from smoky grey to yellowish tan, with whitish underparts. They have dark grey to black open rosettes on their body with small spots of the same color on their heads and larger spots on their legs and tail.
Snow leopards show several adaptations for living in a cold mountainou s environment. Their bodies are stocky, their fur is thick, and their ears are small and rounded, all of which help to minimize heat loss. Their feet are wide, which distributes their weight better for walking on snow, and they have fur on their undersides to increase their traction on steep and unstable surfaces, as well as to assist with minimizing heat loss. Snow leopards’ tails are long and flexible, helping them to maintain their balance. The tails are also very thickly covered with fur which, apart from minimizing heat loss, allows them to be used like a blanket to protect their faces when asleep.
Snow leopards cannot roar, despite possessing some ossification of the hyoid bone. The presence of this ossification was previously thought to be essential for allowing the big cats to roar, but new studies show that the ability to roar is due to other morphological features, especially of the larynx, which are absent in the snow leopard. Snow leopard vocalizations include hisses, chuffing, mews, growls, and wailing.
The diet of the snow leopard varies across its range and with the time of year, and is dependent on prey availability. Its most common prey includes wild sheep and goats, but it also eats marmots, pikas, hares and game birds. It is not averse to taking domestic livestock, which brings it into direct conflict with humans. Snow leopards prefer to ambush prey from above and can leap as far as 14 meters.
Estimated population size: | Estimated population size: 4,080 — 6,590 (roughly, and most estimates of the different countries are outdated); as the snow leopard is hardly ever seen, and for good reasons is called the ghost of the mountain, this number should be regarded as a very rough extrapolation with high uncertainty.In addition, there are between 600 and 700 snow leopards in zoos around the world. |
Trend: | decreasing |
Currently, it has a fragmented distribution, consisting of a mix of long narrow mountain systems and islands of montane habitat scattered throughout a large region surrounding the Central Asian deserts and plateaus. Core areas of snow leopard habitat are present around the periphery of the Tibetan plateau and Taklamakan desert in the Himalaya, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Pamir, Kun Lun, Tian Shan, and Altai mountain ranges. About one third of the world’s snow leopard population may live in Mongolia. Countries: Afghanistan; Bhutan; China (Gansu, Nei Mongol — Presence Uncertain, Qinghai, Sichuan, Tibet, Xinjiang, Yunnan — Regionally Extinct); India (Himachal Pradesh, Jammu-Kashmir, Sikkim, Uttaranchal); Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Mongolia; Nepal; Pakistan; Russian Federation; Tajikistan; Uzbekistan The snow leopard is mostly associated with steep, dry, rocky terrain with shrub or grassland vegetation. In summer, the snow leopard usually live above the tree line on mountainous meadows and in rocky regions at an altitude from 2,700 to 6,000 m. In winter, it comes down into the forests to an altitude of around 2,000 m. Males and females apparently have overlapping ranges. An average density of about 1 snow leopard/100 sq km (about 3⁄100 sq mi) over large tracts of habitat appears to be typical |
Head-body length: | 90 — 130 cm |
Adult shoulder height: | about 60 cm |
Tail length: | 80 — 100 cm |
Female weight: | 35 — 40 kg |
Male weight: | 45 — 55 kg |
Age to maturity: | females reach sexual maturity after 2 — 3 years |
Gestation period: | 93 — 110 days; mating season runs from early January until mid-March |
Birth rate | litter size is 1 — 5; usually 2 — 3 |
Life span: | up to 21 years (in captivity) |
The snow leopard leads a largely solitary life, although mothers may rear cubs for extended periods of time in dens in the mountains. |
Conservation: | There are numerous agencies working to conserve the snow leopard and its threatened mountain ecosystems. These include the Snow Leopard Trust, the Snow Leopard Conservancy and the Snow Leopard Network. These groups and numerous national governments from the snow leopard’s range, non-profits and donors from around the world recently worked together at the 10th International Snow Leopard Conference in Beijing. Their focus on research, community programs in snow leopard regions and education programs are aimed at understanding the cat’s needs as well as the needs of the villagers and herder communities impacting snow leopards’ lives and habitat. |
IUCN Red list status: | Vulnerable (Red list) |
CITES status: | Appendix I (Appendices) |
Human conflict is a key factor affecting the survival of the snow leopard. Snow leopards are often killed by local farmers because they prey on livestock such as sheep, goats, horses, and yak calves. In some areas domestic animals can make up to 58% of the snow leopard’s diet. The reason for the snow leopard’s increased reliance on domestic animals for meat is due to the decline in their natural prey base. The animals they would typically hunt such as the Argali sheep are also hunted by local comunitites. Much of the population decline is also attributed to hunting for the much coveted fur and for bones which are used in Chinese medicines. The habitat of the snow leopard continues to decline as inreased grazing and human settlements fragment the historic range of the species. Moreover, a decrease in suitable habitat is envisaged due to climate change. The Red List classification from the IUCN in September 2017 improved the conservation status of the snow leopard from “Endangered” to “Vulnerable.” As these iconic symbols of Asia’s great mountain wilderness still face numerous threats, many rapidly growing, in their high mountain home, this down-listing raised a controversy among snow leopard conservationists. |
The 600 – 700 snow leopards in zoos can be found here: Zoos with snow leopards | ||
Studbooks | ||
ISB: | Keeper: Nordens Ark, Sweden | ISB = International Studbook (WAZA) EEP = European Endangered species Programme (EAZA) ESB = European Studbook (EAZA) SSP = Species Survival plan Program (AZA) ASMP = Australasian Species Management Program (ZAA) |
EEP: | Coordinator: Nordens Ark, Sweden | |
ESB: | ||
SSP: | Programme leader: Miller Park Zoo, U.S.A. | |
ASMP: |
- ARKIVE
- Wildlife Conservation Network
- Building a Future for Wildlife: Zoos and Aquariums committed to biodiversity conservation (Ed. Gerald Dick & Markus Gusset); WAZA, 2010
- Climate refugia of snow leopards in High Asia, by JuanLi, Thomas M.McCarthy, HaoWang, Byron V.Weckworth, George B.Schaller et al. In Biological Conservation, November 2016.
This exciting video was taken in August 2010 at the Tost Mountain study area in South Gobi, Mongolia where Panthera and the Snow Leopard Trust are collaborating on the first ever long-term study of snow leopards. We believe these three snow leopards may be siblings that are approximately two years old, and have recently left their mother but are still traveling together. This film clip is actually 61 images taken about a half second apart by one of our remote automated cameras (Source: panthera.org)
Amur tiger also known as Siberian tiger though Amur tiger is geographically more correct | ||
Panthera tigris ssp. altaica | ||
Kingdom | Animalia | |
Phylum | Chordata | |
Class | Mammalia | |
Order | Carnivora | |
Family | Felidae | |
Genus | Panthera | |
Species | tigris | |
Subspecies | altaica |
The oldest definitively identified tiger fossils date to roughly two million years ago and were found in China, which is where many scientists believe the species first evolved and then disseminated itself across Asia.
The tiger is the largest member of the cat family, with the Amur tiger being regarded as their largest representative. Nine different subspecies are recognised, three of which became extinct in the latter part of the 20th Century; the Bali (P. t. balica), Javan (P. t. sondaica) and Caspian tigers (P. t. virgata). The remaining subspecies are the Amur (P. t. altaica), South China (P. t. amoyensis), Sumatran (P. t. sumatrae), Indochinese (P. t. corbetti), Malayan (P. t. jacksoni) and Bengal tigers (P. t. tigris). The different subspecies vary in their body size, coat colour and markings, with the Sumatran tiger being the smallest and darkest, whilst the Amur tiger is the largest and palest subspecies. Markings and coat colour can overlap between subspecies and are not often used to differentiate. Generally however, tigers have a reddish-orange to yellow-ochre coat with a white belly and black markings, the pattern of which is unique. Like the other big cats, tigers are well adapted for hunting large prey and have short, heavily-muscled forelimbs and long, sharp, retractable claws.
Tigers have a bad reputation of being man-eaters, and it must be said that tigers have taken a ferocious toll on humans. Some scholars estimated that tigers have killed approximately a million Asians over the last four hundred years. The majority in India, but heavy losses were suffered in East Asia, too.
Tigers are likely to forage optimally when taking the largest prey that can safely be killed, often ungulates their own size or larger. Nevertheless, Amur tigers have been reported eating everything from eagles to seals to brown bears. In the Sikhote-Alin area, where about 90% of Amur tigers can be found, the most preferred prey are red deer and wild boar. Probably due to climate changes, Sika deer are replacing red deer in the coastal area of the Sikhote-Alin. This may not be beneficial for the tiger population.
Tigers demonstrate a spacing system in which females defend territories that overlap little with neighbouring females, and males defend territories that include one to nine tigresses. Depending on prey abundance the home range size of tigresses vary between 440 km2 (Amur tiger, Sikhote-Alin) to 21 km2 (Bengal tiger, Chitwan National Park), which equalises the total prey biomass per female home range. Without the constraints of rearing cubs, home ranges can increase to ensure sufficient availability of prey, like male Amur tigers maintain home ranges on average in excess of 1000 km2.
In historical accounts the Amur tiger descriptions always refer to the enormous size of the animal. Larger than any other tiger species. This no longer seems to be the case. Scientists have speculated that this has been caused by hunting. When it was still allowed, sport hunters eagerly killed the biggest Amur tigers. This, together with the decreasing number of reproductive animals, reduced the possibility of ‘large gene’ transfer, with one result being that postwar specimens no longer seem to be much larger than Bengal tigers.
Estimated population size: | Estimated population size: 349 – 415, of which circa 40% reproduces successfully (2005 census). There are about 12 – 16 specimens in Northeast China (2009 census) |
Trend: | stable |
Historically, Amur tigers were found in the Russian Far East and Northeast China. The most productive habitat of Amur tigers was found in most forested ecosystems (boreal forest) of Northeast China. The tiger was widely distributed in the Daxing’anling, Xiaoxing’anling, Laoyeling, Zhangguangcailing, Wandashan, and Changbaishan mountains. When the Qing dynasty’s ban on the exploitation of forests was lifted in 1870, the tiger’s habitat was decimated in 1950. When tigers nearly disappeared from the Russian Far East in the 1940s, dispersal from China probably contributed to their recovery in Russia. Nowadays, over 90% of Amur tigers are found in one large subpopulation in Russia, the Sikhote Alin. A separate second small subpopulation occurs along the southernmost coast, isolated from the main population by the urban area of Vladivostok, but adjoining China’s tiger population in the Changbai mountains. The Changbai subpopulation meets the criteria for Critically Endangered. And all recorded observations in this area may represent transient or dispersing animals from Russia. |
On average an Amur tiger nowadays (see above) is, like a Bengal tiger, about 3 meters from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail. | |
Female weight: | 100 — 160 kg |
Male weight: | 200 — 260 kg |
Age to maturity: | 3 — 4.5 years; they can mate any time of the year |
Gestation period: | 103 days |
Birth rate | litter size 1 – 5 cubs (50% survive first year), interbirth interval 26.5 months; most cubs are born in summer and fall |
Life span: | oldest known age in the wild 14 years, oldest know age in zoo 35 years |
Conservation: | The Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik (“forbidden zone”) was originally established to restore the sable population. In a zapovednik no one is allowed except guards and scientists with written permission from the zapovednik director. The Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik is now considered one of the Amur tiger’s key breeding grounds. A first systematic census of Amur tigers was performed by Abromov, Salmin and Kaplanov in 1939 – 1940. It proved that no more than 30 Amur tigers remained in Russian Manchuria. Lev Kaplanov suggested a five year moratorium on tiger hunting in his landmark study “the tigers in the Sikhote-Alin” of 1941, only to be published in 1948 in his groundbreaking book “Tigers, Red Deer, Moose”. In the same year, 1941, for the first time ever, Yury Salmin made an urgent plea in a national magazine for a total ban on tiger hunting in the Russia Far East. In 1947, Russia became the first country in the world to recognise the tiger as a protected species. In China large tracts of forests and potentially suitable habitat for Amur tigers still exist throughout Eastern Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces. Therefore, re-colonisation of previously occupied habitat in Northeast China is still possible, if appropriate conservation steps across the landscape are taken. There exists an opportunity to increase substantially the total population of Amur tigers, in Russia and China. Thus, although threats to survival of the Amur tiger continue to loom, those threats are understood and rectifiable, if there is sufficient political will and constraint of human demands on the landscape. To give a few positive examples: A totally different option for Amur tiger conservation is an introduction, or rather the reintroduction, of these species in Central Asia, the former habitat of the extinct Caspian tiger. Recent research found that Caspian and Amur tigers have almost identical genetic sequences, differing by only a single nucleotide. Which means according the leading researcher that “the tigers are too closely related to be separate subspecies.….……Caspian and Amur tigers are one.” |
IUCN Red list status: | Endangered (Red list) |
CITES status: | Appendix I |
Poaching, prey depletion, habitat loss from logging, habitat fragmentation and infectious diseases were, and are, the main threats to Amur tiger population. The vast majority of tiger mortalities appear to be human-caused, as poaching and further prey depletion by hunting or logging may have a devastating effect on tiger population. The illegal wildlife trade market still demands enormous amounts of tiger parts. These parts are consumed for traditional medicinal purposes across Asia, with a heavy demand in China. The international illegal trade in wildlife products is a booming business, and is estimated to yield more than $6 billion a year. In India, with a lot of small protected areas, it has been demonstrated that poaching can eliminate tiger populations in India’s fragmented habitats, despite high prey densities and other potential for high tiger densities. Due to low prey biomass in the Sikhote-Alin, with 4000 km2 the largest protected area in Russia within tiger range, it harbours fewer than 30 animals. This makes the area vulnerable of this ‘poaching’ effect, especially when habitat fragmentation appears. But, a declining human population across Russia and specifically an exodus of people from the forest villages within tiger habitat provide hope that this landscape may not undergo serious fragmentation in the near future. The most recent concern is a disease which may be canine distemper. It is thought that this disease causes abnormal behaviour, which leads to loss of fear of people. Already, a few animals might have lost their life because of human-animal conflicts due to this abnormal behaviour. |
The Amur tigers kept in zoos can be found here: Zoos with amur tigers | ||
Studbooks | ||
ISB: | Keeper: Zoo Leipzig, Germany | ISB = International Studbook (WAZA) EEP = European Endangered species Programme (EAZA) ESB = European Studbook (EAZA) SSP = Species Survival plan Program (AZA) ASMP = Australasian Species Management Program (ZAA) |
EEP: | Coordinator: Zoological Society London, United Kingdom | |
ESB: | ||
SSP: | Programme leader: Minnesota Zoological Gardens, U.S.A. | |
ASMP: |
- The Tiger, a true story of vengeance and survival by John Vaillant, 2010
- Amur tiger: a case study of living on the edge by Dale G. Miquelle et al., in Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids (ed. MacDonald/Loveridge), 2010
- CATnews, special issue, no. 5 autumn 2010, Cats in China
- CATnews, no. 53 autumn 2010
- The Once and Future Tiger by Cheryl Lyn Dybas, 2010; BioScience vol. 60, no. 11
- ARKIVE
- Animalinfo
- Tigers of the World, the science, politics, and conservation of Panthera tigris by Ronald Tilson and Phili J. Nyhus (ed.), 2010
- Riding the Tiger, tiger conservation in human-dominated landscapes by John Seidensticker, Sarah Christie and Peter Jackson (ed.), 1999
- Wildlife Conservation Society Russia (www.wcsrussia.org)
- PANTHERA
Polar bear | ||
Ursus maritimus | ||
Kingdom | Animalia | |
Phylum | Chordata | |
Class | Mammalia | |
Order | Carnivora | |
Family | Ursidae | |
Genus | Ursus | |
Species | maritimus |
The polar bear is the largest living land carnivore in the world today, with adult males growing up to 2.6 meters in length. The most well known of all bears, the polar bear is immediately recognisable from the distinctive white colour of its thick fur. A polar bear is so well insulated that its body heat is virtually invisible to a heat sensor. The only unfurred parts of the body are the foot pads and the tip of its nose, which are black, revealing the dark colour of the skin underneath the pelt. The neck of the polar bear is longer than in other species of bears, and the elongated head has small ears. Polar bears have large strong limbs and huge forepaws which are used as paddles for swimming. The toes are not webbed, but are excellent for walking on snow as they bear non-retractable claws which dig into the snow like ice-picks. The soles of the feet also have small projections and indents which act like suction cups and help this bear to walk on ice without slipping. Females are about half the size of males.
Polar bears feed primarily on ringed seals. Bearded seals are taken less often than ringed seals, but are important prey items. Polar bears also eat harp seals and hooded seals, and they scavenge on carcasses of caribou, musk-oxen, whale, walrus (usually pups) and seal. They occasionally eat mammals such as Svalbard reindeer and lemmings, as well as birds, eggs, lichens, moss, berries, grass and kelp.
Estimated population size: | Estimated population size: 20,000 — 25,000 |
Trend: | decreasing |
The polar bear is found throughout the Arctic on ice-covered waters. There are no reports of polar bears in the vicinity of the North Pole itself. The northernmost location where they have been seen is about 160 km south of the North Pole, at 88°N latitude. The farthest south that polar bears live on a year-round basis is in James Bay (which is at about the same latitude as London) in Canada, where bears den at about 53°N latitude on Akimiski Island. They have also been recorded as far south as St. Mathew Island and the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea and Newfoundland in Canada, and they have occasionally been seen in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada in years when heavy pack ice has been drifting farther to the south than normal (50°N latitude). The favoured habitat of the polar bear is on the annual ice that lies adjacent to the continental arctic coastlines or island archipelagoes. They tend to avoid areas of multiyear ice such as that which characterizes much of the northerly portion of the polar basin, probably because the density of seals is very low there. On the ice, the bears are found near the edges of the ice or in areas where the ice regularly cracks open because of the wind and currents and then refreezes. Seals are more abundant in these areas, and they are accessible to the bears when the seals surface to breathe in narrow cracks or at breathing holes in patches of thin ice that have just frozen over. |
Female head-body length: | 1.9 — 2.1 m |
Male head-body length: | 2.4 — 2.6 m |
Female weight: | 200 — 300 kg (when pregnant up to 500 kg) |
Male weight: | 400 — 600 kg |
Cub weight: | up to 0.7 kg at birth |
Age to maturity: | Age of first reproduction is normally 5 — 6 years for females. Most of the mating is probably done by males 8 — 10 years old and older. |
Gestation period: | Relatively long (195−265 days) because of delayed implantation of the dividing fertilised ovum in the uterus. |
Birth season: | Breeding from March to May; birth from late November to mid-January |
Birth rate | The average litter size is less than two. Twins are most common in polar bears and account for about 2⁄3 of the litters. |
Life span: | About 25 years for males and 30 years for females |
Conservation: | Following the drastic population losses of polar bears in the 1960s and 1970s, an international agreement was signed between the five nations with polar bears (Canada, Norway, USA, the former USSR and Denmark, which governed Greenland at that time). These nations signed the ‘International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears’, and agreed to prohibit unregulated hunting and to outlaw the hunting of the bears from aircrafts and icebreakers. The agreement also obliged each nation to protect polar bear denning sites and migration routes, as well as undertake and share information on polar bear research. This was one of the first and most successful international conservation measures of the 21st century and was responsible for the recovery of the polar bear. The threats caused by climate change are now the main concern, especially as the rate at which environmental changes could occur may be faster than the rate at which many species can adapt. More than ever, the complexity of these issues and their global nature will demand international cooperation if this species and other wildlife is to survive. |
IUCN Red list status: | Vulnerable (Red list) |
CITES status: | Appendix II (Appendices) |
Polar bears are powerful predators which have no predators of their own, apart from human beings. They are living in an environment generally thought to be the cleanest in the world. To many people they radiate the impression of being unaffected by any human impact. This is far from the truth, and also to a large extent old news. The main threats to polar bears are: Climate change: Expected increased temperatures in the Arctic will result in retreat of sea ice. Because polar bears feed almost exclusively on ice-associated seals, changes in the sea ice that affect access to prey will have a negative effect on the bears. Polar bears are totally reliant on the sea ice as their primary habitat. If climate change alters the period of ice cover, bears may be forced on shore for extended periods and forced to rely on stored fat. If these periods become excessively long, mortality will increase. Especially, because the assumed ability of polar bears to physiologically compensate for extended food deprivation proved to be minor. There is no such thing as ‘walking hibernation’. Further, if the ice changes in character such that there is more open water, young cubs which are unable to swim long distances may suffer greater mortality. Pollution: Polar bears are the apex predator in Arctic marine ecosystems and are exposed to high levels of pollutants that are magnified with each step higher in the food web. It is reasonable to believe that the pollutants load of polar bears in some areas are negatively affecting the immune system, hormone regulation, growth patterns, reproduction, and survival rates of polar bears. Oil developing: Oil development in the Arctic poses a wide of range of threats to polar bears ranging from oil spills to increased human-bear interactions. Hunting: Polar bears are harvested in Canada, Greenland, Alaska, and parts of eastern Russia (Chukotka area) under provisions set by the International Agreement. Most polar bears are killed by indigenous people and this hunt has an important cultural role. The financial return from the sale of polar bear hides is also an important income for local people. Sports hunting can be a major source of income for remote settlements and the financial return from the hunt greatly exceeds that of the hide value. In Greenland, polar bear pants are popular with the hunters. Tourism: Tourism in itself is not a direct threat to polar bears but nevertheless, there are many situations in which carelessness or ignorance can result in the death of a polar bear. Tourism in the Arctic is increasing rapidly as people seek out new adventures. The number of conflicts with people will rise as the number of people in polar bear habitat increases.
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Zoos with polar bears: click here. Zoos with Polar Bears International Arctic Ambassador Centers lead the way towards animal welfare and conservation, because they: - Feature bear friendly exhibits with lots of enrichment activities to stimulate the bears to be active and content. - Teach about polar bears, climate change, the Arctic and how this can be supported. - Support PBI research projects to help conserve wild polar bears. | ||
Studbooks | ||
ISB: | Keeper: Rostock Zoo, Germany | ISB = International Studbook (WAZA) EEP = European Endangered species Programme (EAZA) ESB = European Studbook (EAZA) SSP = Species Survival plan Program (AZA) ASMP = Australsian Species Management Program (ZAA) |
EEP: | Coordinator: Amsterdam Zoo, Netherlands | |
ESB: | ||
SSP: | Programme leader: Toledo Zoological Gardens, U.S.A. | |
ASMP: |
- ARKIVE
- IUCN Red list
- IUCN Polar Bear Specialist Group
- Summer declines in activity and body temperature offer polar bears limited energy savings (Whiteman et al., 2015)
- IUCN Polar Bear Specialist Group
- State of the Polar Bear, an interactive exploration of the current population, habitat and threat information for the world’s polar bears
Amur leopard | ||
Panthera pardus ssp. orientalis | ||
Kingdom | Animalia | |
Phylum | Chordata | |
Class | Mammalia | |
Order | Carnivora | |
Family | Felidae | |
Genus | Panthera | |
Species | pardus | |
Subspecies | orientalis |
The Amur leopard is considered to be one of the most critically endangered big cats in the world, with just about 50 (census 2013) remaining in the wild, all in the Russian Far East. It is one of ten living subspecies of leopard (according to the most recent genetic study) but it is especially distinctive due to a particularly pale coat compared to most other subspecies, and dark rosettes which are large and widely spaced with thick, unbroken rings with dark centres. It also has a longer tail than other leopards. This beautiful leopard is well adapted to living in the harsh, cold climates of its range, with a thick coat that can grow as long as 7,5 cm in winter. Leopards give a distinctive rasping call, rather than a growl, as their main vocalisation.
Leopards are predominately solitary and are active mainly during the night. Individuals occupy large, overlapping home ranges that vary in size depending on the abundance of prey.
Leopards are skilful hunters, stalking their prey to within a striking distance of a few metres, and feeding opportunistically on a wide range of animals. The Amur leopard feeds mainly on hares (Lepus spp.), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and sika deer (Cervus nippon).
The range of the Amur leopard previously encompassed the Amur River basin and the mountains of northeastern China and the Korean peninsula. Today, it survives only in one isolated population in the Russian Far East, although there may be a few individuals the Jilin Province of northeast China. Amur leopards live in the temperate forests of Far Eastern Russia, that experience harsh winters with extreme cold and deep snow. It occurs in any area that provides reasonable cover in these forests. |
Conservation: | The leopard is protected but a proactive conservation effort is needed immediately if one of the most stunning of the big cats is to be saved from extinction. Efforts to save the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) in the same area are showing signs of success but the leopard has been largely overlooked until now. NGOs such as Phoenix, supported by funds from the Tigris Foundation, AMUR and the Zoological Society of London (ZSL), carry out anti-poaching patrols, firefighting and education programmes as well as providing compensation funds for local livestock. Population monitoring and ecological studies are spearheaded by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) working with Russian scientists. An area in China’s Jilin province has recently been set aside for the creation of a National Park, in order to safeguard the remnant population there. Moscow Zoo and the London Zoological Society oversee the captive breeding programme, which provides funds for conservation projects and acts as a reservoir of replacement stock for the wild should it be so needed. But there is still a huge amount of work to be done to prevent the imminent extinction of the Amur leopard. The Amur leopard is probably the only large cat for which a reintroduction program using zoo stock is considered a necessary conservation action with some prospect of taking place in the near future. If the plans currently in preparation are approved by the Russian authorities, releases would take place in or near the Lazovsky Nature Reserve in Southern Sikhote Alin (see map below), an area where leopards disappeared approximately 30 years ago. With improved conservation in both Russia and China, an increase could be expected in the present population in the wild from 30 – 40 animals to approximately 80 animals in 15 – 20 years. A recent census (2013) in the Russian Far East revealed a total number of about 50 individuals. ALTA hopes a second population of at least 30 animals will also have been established by that time. |
IUCN Red list status: | Critically endangered (Red list) |
CITES status: | Appendix I (Appendices) |
The Amur leopard has been systematically hunted out of most of its former range for its coat and for the bones that are used in Traditional Chinese Medicine. The local ungulates that make up the majority of this leopard’s prey have also been greatly depleted, leading the leopards to concentrate on domestic livestock, including farmed deer, and therefore inciting further persecution. The tiny population that survives today is under extreme risk of extinction; genetic variation is low in small populations which leads to inbreeding (the amur leopard was found to have the lowest levels of genetic variation of any leopard subspecies) and they are extremely vulnerable to any chance event such as an epidemic or large wild fire. Poaching remains a threat in Russia and annual wild fires rage through the area. In addition a variety of proposed economic development, including the building of an oil pipeline, threatens the last wilderness refuge of these big cats. Last but not least lack of political commitment to any conservation effort is a threat to the survival of this beautiful species. |
There are approximately 300 Amur leopards in captivity, mostly in zoos in Europe, North America and countries of the former Soviet Union. Most, but not all, of these leopards are in zoos participating in managed conservation breeding programmes. Zoo support has been and remains crucial to the survival of the amur leopard. Apart from captive breeding zoos have generated about half the funds spent on the amur leopard conservation to date. Whether as direct donations from many zoos or via grants obtained by zoos and funds raised from the public through the ALTA website. Zoos with amur leopardsA reintroduction plan of captive-borne Amur leopards is currently (autumn 2011) being reviewed by the Russion authorities. (More information here) | ||
Studbooks | ||
ISB: | Keeper: British & Irish Association of Zoos & Aquariums, U.K. | ISB = International Studbook (WAZA) EEP = European Endangered species Programme (EAZA) ESB = European Studbook (EAZA) SSP = Species Survival plan Program (AZA) ASMP = Australasian Species Management Program (ZAA) |
EEP: | Coordinator: Zoological Society London, U.K. | |
ESB: | ||
SSP: | Programme leader: Minnesota Zoological Gardens, U.S.A. | |
ASMP: |
- ALTA
- ARKIVE
- IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group
- Building a Future for Wildlife: Zoos and Aquariums committed to biodiversity conservation (Ed. Gerald Dick & Markus Gusset); WAZA, 2010
“Tiger map” (CC BY 2.5) by Sanderson et al., 2006.